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373 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Extra Credit*
If ATP energy can be produced by Glycolysis and Kreb's Cycle, then why run the Electron Transport Chain? |
Because it yields a huge pay off in ATP Energy (32 ATP)
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Extra Credit*
Why do we breath oxygen? |
BEcause it is the final electron acceptor and without it, the ETC cannot run
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Extra Credit*
Where is Metabolic Water produced? |
At the end of the electron transport chain
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Extra Credit*
Where do Free Oxygen Radicals come from? |
If hydrogen doesn't bind to oxygen, a free radical is produced (oxygen plus electrons)
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Extra Credit*
Similarities of lights reactions of Photosynthesis and the Electron Transport Chain of Aerobic Respiration |
-Both involve a bacterial endosymbiont
-Many of the same molecules (ATP synthase, cytochrome) -H+ (proton) gradient used to make ATP |
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Extra Credit*
Differences between the light reactions of Photosynthesis and the Electron Transport Chain of Aerobic Respiration |
-Hydrogen ions move in opposite directions
-Different final electron acceptor (NADP+ or Oxygen) |
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Extra Credit*
Where do Fats and Proteins enter Cellular Respiration? |
At different stages, often after Glycolysis
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Extra Credit*
How does Cyanide kill you? |
-Blocks Cytochrome Oxidase
-Stops electron transport chain |
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KNOW THIS:
What is Brown Far and how does it work? |
-Special fat cells in which ATP Synthase shuts off
-H+ ions pass through another molecule, Thermogenin, but do not make ATP, instead, release energy as heat -Found in mammals that hibernate and in human infants around spine, neck, and the shoulders. -Generates body heat in animals that can't shiver or regulate body temperature on their own |
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Extra Credit*
Why does Cancer cause people to lose weight? |
-Cancerous tumors often have a poor blood supply
-Cancer cells grow so fast they often lack sufficient oxygen -They ar elimited to Glycolysis -Cells can't get enough energy, people lose weight |
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Cardiovascular or Circulatory System
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System of tubes and pumps that circulate fluids throughout the body
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Blood
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-Contains blood plasma and blood cells
-Never leaves blood vessels - 1-1.5 gallons |
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Interstitial Fluid
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-Watery fluid surrounding cells (tissue fluid)
-moves in and out of blood vessels -about 3 gallons |
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Where does Interstitial Fluid drain?
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into the lymphatic system (part of the immune system)
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What drives the movement of Interstitial Fluid in and out of Blood vessels?
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-pressure differences between inside and outside of blood vessel
-out on artery side -back in on vein side |
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Hemolymph
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mixture of blood and interstitial fluid
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Open Circulatory system
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Hemolymph not contained in vessels. They do not have hearts
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Characteristics of Open Circulatory system
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a. can't control flow
b. works only for small animals c. Body movements increase circulation |
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Closed Circulatory system
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blood never leaves vessels
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Characteristics of Closed Circulatory system
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a. blood travels faster in vessels
b. control blood flow by controlling vessel diameter c. allows higher metabolic rates and activity |
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blood
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considered a body tissue
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respiratory pigments
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proteins in blood cells that carry gases
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Why do we have respiratory pigment?
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allows blood to carry more oxygen than by diffusion alone
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What is your respiratory pigment?
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Hemoglobin
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What is the most common blood disorder?
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anemia
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Anemia
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blood carries too little oxygen.
-problem with blood quality, not quantity |
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blood clotting protein
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Fibrin
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hemophilia
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too little Fibrin protein produced; trouble forming blood clots (caused by genetics or liver problems)
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Important Characteristics of Blood Vessels
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a. elastic walls
b. muscles to control diameter c. valves to prevent backflow |
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Vasoconstriction
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vessel gets smaller, blood pressure goes up
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Causes of Vasoconstriction
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Antihistamines, Amphetamines, Cocaine, Psilocybin
Eyedrops (Visine), Cold temperatures, Nicotine (Tobacco) |
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Vasodilation
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vessels get bigger, blood pressure goes down
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Causes of Vasodilation
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Histamines, Lactic Acid, Too much CO2, Ethanol, THC, Lack of noise, Lack of light, Hot temperatures
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Coronary Artery
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supplies the heart with blood, oxygen, and food
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Atherosclerosis
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Lipid accumulation (hardened plaques) inside artery walls, narrows the inside diameter, increases blood pressure. Often occurs in Coronary Arteries
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Arteriosclerosis
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Hardening of artery walls. Lose elasticity and can't handle pressure
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*Cholesterol
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HDL: good
LDL: bad |
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Heart attack
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loss of blood and oxygen to heart; heart muscle dies
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Myocardial Infarction
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-Severe heart attack
-Tissues irreversibly damaged by lack of oxygen |
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Myocardial Ischemia
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Minor Heart attack
-tissues not dead and can be saved if oxygen (blood supply) is restored |
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Ischemia
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a problem with blood quantity, not quality
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Coronary Bypass Surgery
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a section of blood vessel is taken from somewhere else in the body and used to replace a clogged section of Coronary artery supplying the heart
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Angioplasty
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Procedures to remove or deal with plaques
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laser
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blast the plaques with lasers
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balloon
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inflate a balloon in the artery to open up the artery. Remove balloon when finished
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stent
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small, hollow tube put inside an artery to hold it open. stays inside when finished
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thrombus
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a blood clot inside a blood vessel
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embolism
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when a Plaque or Thrombus breaks free and moves to another part of the body
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Aneurysm
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balloon-like bulge in a blood vessel; risk of bursting
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stroke
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disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. can be caused by ischemia (lack of blood flow) due to Thrombus or Embolism or due to hemorrhage (rupture)
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Hypertension
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chronic high blood pressure
-causes heart attacks, strokes, and aneurysms -caused by anything that increases blood volume or decreases vessel diameter -genetics, aging, lack of sleep, too much salt |
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Hypotension
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low blood pressure. caused by low blood volume such as after an accident or excessive bleeding or too many diuretics (things that take water out of your blood and make you urinate). Diet pills/drugs
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How many muscles in the human body?
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about 600 (little more)
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Muscle is made from two kinds of filaments:
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actin (thin filament) a protein
myosin (thick filament) a motor protein |
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Myosin
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thick filaments in muscles
-motor protein |
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actin
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thin filament in muscles
-a protein |
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Muscle Contraction Process
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-A nerve impulse is sent to muscle and causes the releasr of calcium ions
-Causes Myosin filaments to grab the actin filaments -ATP energy is used to bend the Myosin filament heads inward -This pulls Actin filaments closer together and shortens the muscle -More ATP energy is used to separate the Actin and Myosin filaments and the whole process repeats over and over again until the muscle is fully contracted -ATP energy is then used to reabsorb the calcum, which prevents Actin and Myosin from binding and allows the muscle to relax. *ATP ENERGY IS USED IN 3 PLACES* (study picture on huckyct) |
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rigor mortis
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No ATP is available to pump calcium away so Actin and Myosin filaments remain stuck together and muscles become rigid and stuff. Occurs for a short time after death.
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Muscle cramps:
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imbalances in blood Ions, dehydration, or over-exertion can cause involuntary release of calcium ions
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muscle burn
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accumulation of lactic acid after anaerobic respiration
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What causes muscle fatigue?
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calcium channels become leaky, muscle can't fully contrast or relax
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Muscle Fiber Types:
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differ in their concentration of myosin
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Fast-twitch
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white fibers, explosive speed, no endurance
-Few mitochondria -Rely on anaerobic respiration so lactic acid builds up |
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Examples of Animals with fast twitch fibers
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Cheetah: 60-70 mph (300 yards)
Rabbit: 35 mph (150 yards) Turkey: fly into a tree |
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Slow twitch
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Red fibers, good endurance, slower speed.
-Many mitochondria -rely on aerobic respiration so lasts a long time. |
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Examples of animals with slow-twitch muscle fibers
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Wolf - runs for 40 miles
Swift- can fly for more than 1 years without stopping |
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3 systems for generating ATP energy in muscles
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Phosphagen System
Glycolytic System Aerobic Respiration |
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Phosphagen System
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phosphate for ATP formation stored in molecules of Creatine Phosphate. Last for about 10 seconds. Anaerobic
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Glycolytic System
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Use Glycolysis and Lactate Fermentation. Lasts for 1-2 minutes. Anaerobic
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Aerobic Respiration
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slowest wayto make ATP, but lasts the longest. Up to several hours.
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Muscles burn fuel in this order
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sugars, fats, proteins
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Genetic Control of Musculature
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Myostatin Gene inhibits muscular development. Mutations in Myostatin cause excessive muscle development
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Exercise Physiology
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exercise does not make more muscle. Fibers get bigger and more resistant to fatigue
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Endurance Training
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light weights, many repetitions. Increases number of mitochondria and capillaries serving the muscle
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Strength Training
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Heavy weights, few repetitions. Makes muscle fibers thicker and promotes enzymes used in glycolysis
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Skeleton
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Rigid body support with muscles attached
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Hydrostatic skeleton
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Fluid or air held under pressure in a closed body compartment
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Exoskeleton
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a hard skeleton on the outside of the body. Made from protein Chitin.
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Endoskeleton
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a hard skeleton on the inside of the body
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What is Cartilage made from?
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Collagen (protein) fibers
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What are Bones made from?
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Collagen strengthened by Calcium Phosphate
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How many bones in a human infant
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about 300
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how many bones in a human adult
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200-210
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What happens to the other bones
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many of our bones fuse together as we grow; for example, the skull
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Do men and women have different numbers of rib bones
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no, most adults have 12 pairs
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Four functions of bones
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a) movement
b) protect internal organs c) store calcium and phosphorus d) produce red and white blood cells (in bone marrow) |
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Osteoclasts
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bones cells that secrete acids and constantly remove bone
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Osteoblasts
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cells that constantly rebuild bone
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Until about age 24
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you add bone mass: Osteoblasts work faster than Osteoclasts
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what causes Osteoporosis?
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osteoclasts work faster than osteoblasts
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What is the function of bone marrow?
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produces red and white blood cells and stores fat
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tendons
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muscle to bone
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ligaments
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bone to bone
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osteoarthritis
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cartilage shock absorbers between the bones wear away. Usually, the fingers, knees, hips, and back are the most affected
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scoliosis
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unnatural curvature of the spine, side to side or font to back, or rotation. Pain, uneven arms or breasts. Thought to be controlled by genetics
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richets
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softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency. Most common childhood disease in many developing countries
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spinal bifida
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incompletely formed spinal cord and vertebrae so spinal cord sticks out of back. One of the most common birth defects. May be caused by Trisomy 18. Incidence reduced 70% by taking folic acid (vitamin B9 in leafy vegetables)
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respiration
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The exchange of gases between an organism and the surrounding environment.
-Take in O2, give off CO2 |
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ventilation
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increasing the flow of water or air over the respiratory surfaces
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*Human alveolar surface area
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approximately 1000ft2
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Four important points about the diffusion of gases
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a) Gases must pass through liquids to get to cells
b) The greater the surface area for gas exchange, the more gas can diffuse c) Diffusion depends on gas concentration and gas pressure d) Oxygen diffuses abut 8,000 times faster in Air than in Water |
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What type of water holds the most dissolved oxygen?
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cold, fresh
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What type of water holds the least dissolved oxygen?
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warm, salt
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How much oxygen does water hold compared to air? Why?
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air holds 20x as much dissolved oxygen as water
-O2 is nonpolar, H2O is polar |
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What forces drive gas into water?
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Atmospheric pressure, Hemoglobin, Concentration gradients
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Gills
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Outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in the water for gas exchange. The surface area is often much greater than the surface area of the rest of the body. **You can use your lungs in water if the water was super-oxygenated.
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Spiracles
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Portholes on the outside of an insect's body for gas exchange
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What do Spiracles (portholes outside of an insect's body for gas exchange) connect to?
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-connect to a Trachael system
-system of air tubes throughout the body |
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Does the open circulatory system of insects transport Oxygen and Carbon dioxide?
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No, because the tracheal system touches all the cells in the body
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Positive Pressure
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in amphibians, air pushed into lungs and then sucked out
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Metamorphosis
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many amphibians use gills as juveniles (tad poles or newts) and then use lungs as adults
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Pulmocutaneous Respiration
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respiration through the skin
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Air Sacs
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birds - have lungs and air sac system: air sacs attached to lungs
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Functions of the air sac system in birds
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a) one-way air flow
b) prevents mixing of old and new air c) reduces weight *most efficient respiratory system -high oxygen demand for flying |
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Negative pressure
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Mammals - air sucked in, then pushed out
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What kind of ventilation do mammals have?
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tidal ventilation; in and out like the tides
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How do mammals ventilate?
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Diaphragm. Dome shaped muscle below the lungs
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How the diaphragm works
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Diaphragm contracts, moves down, air sucked into lungs,
Diaphragm up, air pushed out of lung. |
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Name of windpipe
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trachea
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Name of voicebox
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Larynx
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What does the Trachea branch in to?
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Bronchi
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What do the Bronchi branch in to?
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Bronchioles
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What do the Bronchioles branch in to?
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Alveoli
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How many alveoli does the average human have?
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300 million
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Where does gas exchange take place?
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alveoli
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Does your brain tell you to Breathe?
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yes (unlike your heartbeat)
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How do we know when to breathe more?
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When CO2 levels in our blood get too high
Not O2 levels |
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asthma
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Bronchioles have smooth muscle to control the flow of air. This condition involves the involuntary contraction of the muscles and constriction of the airway; often caused by allergies or sudden temperature changes
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emphysema
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irreversible degenerative disease. Loss of elasticity in the small airways (alveoli). The result is that the small airways collapse during exhalation
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COPD
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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. A combination of Emphysema and Chronic bronchitis (inflammation of bronchioles). Airways become narrowed making it difficult to breathe.
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Apnea
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Ventilation to the lungs is stopped for short periods (sometimes hundreds of times per night). Can be caused by brain's inability to regulate respiration, by obstruction, or by an overdose of depressants that relax muscles (e.g. alcohol)
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SIDS
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Brain has trouble reading CO2 levels properly and doesn't tell infant to breathe
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pneumonia
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An inflammation of the lungs that leads to an accumulation of fluid and impairs lung function. Can be used by bacteria, protists, viruses, and fungi. One type is called Legionnaire's disease. Another bacterial infection causes Tuberculosis.
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H1N1
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Low (0.01-0.03%) fatality rate for individuals with healthy immune systems. Virus contains genes from five different influenza viruses. Vaccination is the best prevention
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What is the deadliest infection disease in the world?
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acute respiratory infection
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of the eight deadliest infection diseases, how many are caused by bacteria and viruses?
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7
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Infection
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a pathogen invades a cell or multi-celled organism
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Epidemic
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a disease spreads through part of a population
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pandemic
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epidemic spreads through many populations at the same time
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why don't pathogens kill us all?
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a) we evolved with them. Our immune system can kill most of them
b) they kill each other c) prudent parasite argument |
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prudent parasite argument
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parasites should not kill their hosts or else they can't be spread to other hosts.
-Ancient pathogens less deadly than new pathogens |
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*What do Antibiotics kill?
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Kill bacteria.
-DO NOT kill viruses, your immune system does |
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Where do antibiotics come from? Why?
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from Bacteria and Fungi
-They compete for resources and infect each other. Thus, they benefit by killing each other |
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Binary Fission
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(Bacterial Reproduction)
-asexual, produces two identical cells, can be very fast (cell division) |
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Conjugation
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(Bacterial Reproduction)
-direct exchange of DNA through conjugation tube or sex pili |
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Transformation:
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(Bacterial Reproduction)
-Uptake of DNA directly from the environment |
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Transduction
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(Bacterial Reproduction)
-transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another by a virus |
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Endospores
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(Bacterial Reproduction)
-Bacterial spore that can survive harsh conditions (heat, radiation, drying) |
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Antibiotic Resistance
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Bacteria either evolve by mutation or acquire from another bacterium the ability to detoxify a particular antibiotic. Happens in places where bacteria are exposed to antibiotics, like hospitals.
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Rhizobium
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symbiosis between bacteria and plant roots that helps plants get Nitrogen out of the soil. Associated with legumes---alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, and peanuts.
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Viruses
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a) 1000-10,000 times smaller than bacteria
b) DNA or RNA in a protein coat (capsid) c) Cannot reproduce itself, must use a host cell |
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Viroids
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a) strands of RNA: no protein coat, no protein coding genes
b) Pathogens of plants and crop species c) Resemble Introns (noncoding regions of eukaryotic DNA) |
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Prions
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Infectious proteins
a) misfolded proteins that make other proteins misfold and accumulate in brain tissue b) resistant to boiling, baking, radiation, and disinfectants |
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Protists
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single-celled Eukaryotes palced in their own kingdom
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Dinoflagellates
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single celled protists
-causes algae blooms |
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What is Red Tide?
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Dinoflagellate population explosion.
-Release toxins into the water that can kill fish and you |
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Algae
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colonial protists, NOT plants
4 kinds: Golden, Brown, Red, Green |
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Golden Algae
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Diatoms. Give off as much oxygen every year as all land pants
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Brown Algae
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Kelp: Important structure in Marine ecosystems
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Red Algae
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Source of Agar used in jellies and cosmetics and eaten as food
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Green Algae
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Sea lettuce.
-Not a plant, but evolved inot the Green Plants |
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Fungi
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diseases are called Mycoses
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What important role do fungi play in ecosystems?
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decomposers in the ecosystem
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What breaks down Fungi?
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Fungicides
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What is the main component of the fungal cell wall?
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Chitin
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Hyphae
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a chain
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Mycelium
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an interwoven mat of hyphae that forms the body of the fungus
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What type of nutrition do Fungi have?
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absorptive
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Fungal cells secrete
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powerful exoenzymes that digest food outside the body
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Saprobic fungi
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Feed on dead organisms
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parasitic fungi
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feed on living organisms
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Haustoria
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Specialized parasitic hyphae that invade living cells and secrete digestive enzymes
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Mold
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rapidly growing asexually reproducing fungus
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yeast
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unicellular fungi that live in damp places and can reproduce by budding. Inhabit plant sap and animal tissues
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Lichen
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a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic cyanobacerial cell or a photosynthetic green algae
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Mycorrhizae
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a symbiotic relationship between plant roots and fungi that helps plants absorb nutrients from soil, particularly phosphorus
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Leaf Cutter Ants
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fungi farmers. Live symbiotically with fungi.
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Antigens
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any substance that stimulates an immune response. Can be pathogens, part of pathogens, or even dirt
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Lymphatic system
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it is a separate circulatory system that transports interstitial fluid from cells back to the blood's circulatory system
-Body's defenses against pathogens and antigens |
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What is the function of the lymphatic system
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filter pathogens and antigens from interstitial fluid
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where are white blood cells formed?
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bone marrow
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where do they mature?
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Thymus gland
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Spleen
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filters out old Red Blood cells, produces some White Blood cells, and removes pathogens and antigens your body has already attacked and killed.
*Filters blood |
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lymph nodes
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where interstitial fluid is filtered
-swollen glands mean you are fighting an infection |
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non-specific defenses
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attack any pathogen that is not recognized as 'self'
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First non-specific defenses against Infection and Disease
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a) skin, exoskeleton, or other body covering prevents pathogens from entering body
b) tears, sweat, and saliva have enzyme Lysozyme that kills many bacteria c) Mucus washes pathogens away from the body d) stomach acid (HCL) and other acids can kill many pathogens |
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Second non-specific defense against Infection and Disease
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specialized cells
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Natural Killer Cells
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white blood cells that attack Bacteria, Viruses, and Cancer cells
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Perforins
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Proteins that poke holes in pathogens
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Macrophages
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White blood cells than can eat whole Bacteria and Viruses
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Third non-specific defense against Infection and Disease
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Inflammation (redness, swelling, heat)
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Histamines
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produced by mast cells and it makes capillaries dilate and become leaky causing redness and swelling. Antihistamines block this action
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Prostaglandins
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hormone produced by cells near affected area. Induces fever and inflammation. Aspirin blocks it
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Why do you respond to infection or injury with inflammation
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to trap pathogens at the site of injury and prepare tissue for repair. Also immobilized injured joints.
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Why do we get fever?
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immune system works better at 100 degrees F.
Many pathogens don't like the high temperature |
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Specific Defenses
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-good, but slow
-attacks only certain pathogens Good: because cells have 'memory' Bad: the response can be several weeks (if your body has been exposed to the antigen before, the response time can be short |
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T Cells:
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White blood cells that help control the immune response
-Tell B cells when to divide |
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B Cells
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White blood cells that make antibodies that attach to Antigens. Each B cell makes one kind of antibody that attaches to one kind of antigen
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Antibodies
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proteins that bind to antigens and signal other cells to attack the antigen
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B cells divide into two different cell types
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plasma cell and memory cells
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Plasma cells:
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'Antibody factories'. Each plasma cell can produce millions of antibodies
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Memory cells:
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plasma cells that remain dormany until the same antigen is found in the body again
-*Memory cells are the reason you don't get 'sick' from the same pathogen twice |
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Immunodeficiency Diseases
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Diseases in which the Immune system itself is attacked
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How does HIV (AIDS) virus work?
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HIV virus attacks and destroys T cells
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What happens if you don't have enough T cells
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No plasma cells, no memory cells. Body can't fight ANY infections. People die from infections the rest of us fight everyday
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MHC proteins
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(Major Histocompatibility Complex).
-Cell surface proteins that mark cells as 'self' or 'non-self'. If not your cells, they will be attacked and destroyed by your immune system |
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Autoimmune Disorder
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when your immune system attacks your own cells
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Multiple Sclerosis
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(Autoimmune Disorder)
-immune system attacks nerve cell covering |
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Type I Diabetes
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(Autoimmune Disorder)
-immune system attacks Insulin-producing cells in pancreas |
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Graves' Disease
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(Autoimmune Disorder)
-immune system attacks thyroid gland |
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Rheumatoid Arthritis
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(Autoimmune Disorder)
-immune system attacks tissues in skeletal joints |
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Lupus
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(Autoimmune Disorder)
-immune system attacks body's own tissues and ogans |
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How do Vaccines work?
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-Dead pathogens or antigens are injected into the Body
-they DO stimulate the production of Memory cells -they DO NOT cause disease |
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Passive Immunity
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short-term immunity using antibodies produced outside the body
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Snake-bite antivenin
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snake venom is collected and injected into horses or rabbits, which then produce antibodies in response to the venom. Antibodies are collected, concentrated, and injected into a snakebite victim
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Maternal antibodies
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mothers transfer some antibodies across the placenta to the developing fetus to give them protection against diseases the mother has already had; breastfeeding does this too
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Gamma Globulin
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If traveling out of the country, you may receive antibodies prepared from the blood of other humans from that geographic area for short term protection against local disease, like Hepatitis A
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Allergic Reactions
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over-production of antibodies, which stimulates a release of histamines and causes a drop in blood pressure
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Anaphylactic shock
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a whole-body allergic reaction. Can be fatal
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What do you take if Anaphylactic shock occures
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a quick dose of Epinephrine or Adrenaline (raises blood pressure)
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Glands
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cells organized into organs that secrete hormones
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Endocrine gland
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secrete hormones directly into the blood or interstitial fluid
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Exocrine gland
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secrete hormones into a duct that leads out of the body.
-sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands |
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Hormone
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a chemical produced by one cell that controls activity of other cells
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target cells
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those cells able to respond to the hormone
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receptors
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proteins on target cells that bind to specific hormones
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true hormones
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secreted directly into the blood stream by Endocrine glands.
Examples: Thyroxine, Epinephrine, Testosterone, Estrogen, Insulin, and Glucagon |
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paracrine hormone
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A hormone that is produced by one cell and moves a short distance through interstitial fluid to reach target cells.
Examples: Prostaglandins that mediates inflammation and blood flow |
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neurohormone
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are secreted by nerve cells and travel in the blood stream to distant target cells.
Examples: ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone) and Oxytocin |
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pheromone
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compounds secreted by one individual that affect target cells in another individual. They are typically secreted by Exocrine (ducted) glands
Examples: -Luna Moth - male feathery antennas can find female by hormones that say she is ready to mate -Babies respond to smell of mothers clothes and are happy, get upset and cries at other women's clothes -Menstrual cycles in women are synchronized |
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neurotransmitters
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hormones secreted between nerve cells, between nerve cells and muscle cells, or between nerve cells and glands.
Examples: Dopamine, Serotonin |
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Major Glands of the Endocrine System
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1) Hypothalamus
2) Pituitary Gland 3) Adrenal gland 4) Ovaries and Testes 5) Pineal gland 6) Thyroid gland 7) Pancreas |
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Hypothalamus
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(Neuroendocrine control center)
-master gland. Makes eight hormones that mostly control the release of other hormones |
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Oxytocin
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feelings of bonding and love
Example: -Females after sex and orgasm -After Labor contractions -both to bond with partner/baby for reproductive success |
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Pituitary gland
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Near Hypothalamus; stores ADH and Oxytocin.
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Endorphins
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'feel good' hormones produced by Pituitary and Hypothalamus
-Produced during or after: strenuous exercise, excitement/extreme sports (rush), orgasm |
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Growth Hormone (HGH)
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Biggest peaks occur during puberty and about a half hour after you go to sleep
-decreases as you get older |
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Growth Hormones roles in the body include
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a) increase height in children
b) increase muscle mass c) increase size and strength of bones d) Stimulate growth of all internal organs except the brain. |
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Potential Problems with HGH
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May promote growth of colon, lung, and breast cancers. May increase risk of diabetes.
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Adrenal Gland
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On top of kidneys. Produce Cortisol and Epinephrine (adrenaline), which are involved in stress response.
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Adrenaline
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(Epinephrine). Fast! Activated by direct nerve stimulation from the brain to the Adrenal glands.
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Cortisol
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Slow stress response. Produced under chronic stress. Chronic stress bad for your health.
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Ovaries and Testes
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Secrete the sex hormones, primarily Estrogen and Testosterone.
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Testosterone
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Main anabolic steroid produced by the body.
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Anabolic effects of Testosterone
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Build muscle and bone mass
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Androgenic effects of Testosterone
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Responsible for maleness traits such as facial hair, deeper voice, aggression
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Estrogen
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Female secondary sexual characteristics: breasts, menstrual cycle. Male libido, sperm maturation.
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Breast Cancer
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About 80% of breast cancers rely on Estrogen to grow so treatments involve suppression.
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Pineal Gland
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In your brain. Receptors are in your eyes. Regulates Circadian Rhythms---sleep/wake cycles.
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What hormone does the pineal secrete in response to darkness?
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Melatonin promotes sleep and inhibits sperm and
egg production. Affects mood. |
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Thyroid gland
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in your throat. Produces Thyroxine.
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Thyroxine
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Primary hormone produced by Thyroid gland that controls metabolism.
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What is required to make Thyroxine and where do you get it?
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Iodine from Iodized salt.
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Pancreas
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Organ of your digestive system that also regulates blood sugar levels. (Diabetes is the third leading cause of
death in the US behind Heart disease and cancer) |
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Memorize Pancreas paragraph
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After eating a meal with sugars, the _Pancreas_ releases _Insulin_ that travels in the
bloodstream to _liver and fat cells_ and tells them to store excess Glucose as_Glycogen_. As your blood sugar drops, the _Pancreas_ secretes _Glucagon_ that travels in the bloodstream to _liver and fat cells_ and tells them to convert _Glycogen_ back into _Glucose_ and release it into the bloodstream. |
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Diabetes mellitus
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Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar).
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Type I Diabetes
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Immune system destroys insulin-producing cells of pancreas. (Juvenile diabetes)
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Type 2 Diabetes
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Cells lose sensitivity to insulin. (Adult-onset diabetes / poor diet / obesity)
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Gestational diabetes
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Hormones produced during pregnancy interfere with insulin; goes away after childbirth.
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Hormones that affect appetite
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Leptin, Cholecystokinin (CCK), Ghrelin
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Leptin
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Produced by fat cells, Amount of Leptin produced is related to size of fat cells. When fat cells shrink,
Leptin production decreases, releasing the inhibition to eat. Mice with deficient Leptin production eat too much. Starvation resistance. |
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Cholecysotokinin
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(CCK) Produced by the small intestine and tells the brain you are full, which reduces the desire
to eat. Prevents you from overeating. |
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Ghrelin
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A peptide hormone secreted by the cells of the stomach lining and hypothalamus. Ghrelin makes you
hungry and prevents you from burning stored body fat. Body is adapted to secrete more after losing weight as way of putting weight back on. Starvation resistance. |
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Nervous System
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specialized cells sense environment and allow rapid, long-distance communication between cells
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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all the nerves connected to Brain and Spinal Cord
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Neuron
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(nerve cell) - cells specialized for conducting electrical charges
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Sensory Neuron
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directly sense environment. send signals to CNS.
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Nociceptor
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send pain signals to brain. Detect damage to body
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Motor Neuron
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attach to muscles and glands and make them work. Receive signal from CNS
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Mirror Neuron
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neurons that fires when an animal acts AND when it sees another animal perform the same action
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What is a Reflex Arc
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Involuntary response to an external stimulus
-direct connection between sensory and motor neuron without connection to brain |
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Cell Body
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main part of cell with nucleus and other cell organelles
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Dendrite
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bring information to cell body
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Axon
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carry information away from cell body
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Myelin Sheath:
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lipid-rich insulation around axon
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Two primary functions of the Myelin Sheath
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-insulation
-make nerve impulse faster |
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synapse
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tiny spaces between nerve cells or between nerves ad muscle or glands cells
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Nerve Impulse
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Action Potential
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Membrane Potential
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(resting potential) the resting difference in charge between inside and outside of a nerve cells
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At rest, the inside of a nerve cell is ____ charged. Why?
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negatively; most proteins and DNA are negatively charged (even though there are some positive in there)
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At rest, the outside of a nerve cell is ____ charged. Why?
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positively; There are high concentration of sodium ions (Na+)
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Action potential
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temporary reversal of charge between inside and outside of nerve cell.
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Sodium (Na+) Channel:
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Protein channel in nerve cell membrane that controls flow of Sodium (Na+) ions into cell. More sodium outside than inside. -Passive diffusive, takes no energy.
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Potassium (K+) Channel:
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protein channel in nerve cell membrane that controls flow of potassium (K+) out of cell. More potassium inside than outside.
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Sodium-Potassium (Na+/K+) Pump
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uses ATP energy to pump sodium ions back out and pump Potassium ions back in
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How does an ACtion potential (Nerve Impulse) move along an Axon?
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1) Na+ channel opens. Na+ ions flow into cell. Reverse charge. Now positive inside, negative outside
2) Step 1 causes next Na+ channel to open, ACtion Potential moves along Axon away from cell body 3) K+ channels open right after Na+ channel. K+ flows out and restores negative charge inside, positive charge outside 4. Sodium-Potassium pump uses ATP energy to pump Na+ back out and K+ back in Membrane potential restored. |
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How fast do nerve impulses travel in vertebrates?
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fastest are about 400 ft/sec or about 272 mph
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Invertebrates lack the myelin sheath. How fast do their nerve impulses travel?
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6.6 ft/sec or about 4.5 mph
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Neurotransmitters
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hormones secreted into the synapse between nerve cells or between nerve and muscle cells
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Where are Neurotransmitters stored?
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in small vesicles at the tips of axons
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What causes the release of Neurotransmitters into the synaptic space?
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calcium ions (CA2+) flow into the nerve cell and cause the release of the neurotransmitter
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after neurotransmitters are used, what happens to them?
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they are either re-absorbed and re-used by nerve cells or are destroyed by enzymes
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Depression
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low levels of norepinephrine and/or serotonin have been linked to clinical depression
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Addiction (Cocaint)
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cocaine blocks reabsorption of Dopamine
1) body produces enzymes to destroy extra dopamine -need more and more cocain to get the same high -when you're not using cocaine, body keeps destroying Dopamine so you can't feel good unless you keep using cocaine! |
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Neurons and Reproduction
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some neurons release gases
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Memorize Erection paragraph
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In certain male mammals, neurons release _(NO) Nitric Oxide gas_ into the erectile tissue of the penis. In response, the muscles in the blood vessel walls (arteries) of the erectile tissue _Vasodilate (open)_ and allow the erectile tissue to fill with blood producing an erection. The erection is maintained because the veins in the erectile tissue are _Vasoconstrict (tighten)_. The result is that blood can get into the penis easily, but has a hard time getting out. An erect penis holds _10x_ as much blood as one that is not erect.
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How does Viagra work?
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Blocks an enzyme that blocks (NO) and allows (NO) to work
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Neurotoxins
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Many block ion channels from opening or closing
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Novocaine
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Works by blocking Sodium (Na+) channels from opening, No
pain signals sent to brain |
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Alcohol
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At high doses, can block potassium channels open and
make them leaky, even at rest. This lowers membrane potential causing blurred vision, slower reactions, stumbling, and slurred speech. |
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Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
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Cellular structure prevents bacteria and large molecules from entering brain tissue
-water, oxygen, CO2, Glucose, Alcohol, and sometimes viruses get through |
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What types of things weaken BBB?
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Genetics, Hypertension, Radiation, Infection
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Circumventricular Organs
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areas of the brain where BBB is intentionally weak to allow monitoring of blood quality
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Area Postrema
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In Medulla part of brain. Weak area of BBB that can detect toxic substances in the blood and make you throw up
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Brain infections
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hard to treat because most antibodies and antibiotics are too large to get through the BBB
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Meningitis
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can be caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, or injury. Infection leads to inflammation of the protective membranes around the brain and spinal cord (called Meninges). West Nile Virus causes this.
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Alzheimer's Disease:
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Disruption in BBB allows misfolded proteins (Beta Amyloid) to enter brain and accumulate. Forms hard, insoluble Amyloid Plagues
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Seizures
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rapid simultaneous firing of neurons in the brain
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Epilepsy
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over 40 different kinds
-episodic abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Sometimes just goes away |
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Tonic-clonic Seizure
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most serious. accompanied by violent convulsions. Can cause brain damage if lasts too long
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Absence Seizures
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'mind' seizure. Short duration, State into space or move around aimlessly. Not remember it.
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Mental Illness
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most caused by simple chemical imbalances in the brain. Often involving neurotransmitters
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why is mental illness difficult to treat?
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difficult to get medications past the BBB
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Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
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special fluid made by brain acts as interstitial fluid for brain cells and spinal cord
a) mechanical protection for brain and neurons b) transport molecules around nervous system c) help control nutrient flow to brain |
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Where does the CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) drain?
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into lymphatic system
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CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) pressure:
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varies due to coughing or internal compression of Jugular Veins in neck. Holding a sneeze increases pressure
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CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) pressure too high:
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can be fatal.
can prevent oxygen, glucose, water from moving into brain |
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CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) pressure too low
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headahces when standing. Blurred vision, hearing loss
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brainstem:
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survival functions, being alert and awake
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medulla
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controls heart rate, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion
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pons
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regulates breathing
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Midbrain
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helps coordinate vision and hearing and visual reflexes
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Diencephalon
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homeostatis, sleep, thirst, hunger, anger, sex drive
-Disorders: OCD, bipolar disorder, depression, schizophrenia -Hallucinogenic drugs affect it |
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Sleep
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may function in consolidating learning and memory
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Dreams (Oneirology)
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replay events that happened recently. During REM sleep most motor skills are paralyzed
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Cerebellum
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Coordinates muscles, balance, and the position of body in space
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Cerebrum
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memory, abstract thought, sensory perception, thinking, language
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Cerebral Cortex
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outer layer of cerebrum
-Many functions: awareness, thinking, attention, etc |
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Does the left side of your brain control the right side of your body and vice versa
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yes
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left side of brain:
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Speech, language, math, logic, right side of body
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right side of brain
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artistic ability, creativity, music, left side of body
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Limbic System
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Inner layer of cerebrum. Produces and interprets emotions. Understand emotions of others
-Include Hippocampus involved in long-term memory |
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Memory/Learning
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made up of neural pathways that differ in length, intensity, and which types and amounts of neurotransmitters are used
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short term memory
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frontal cortex (cerebrum)
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long term memory
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hippocampus (Limbic system)
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What factors improve the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory?
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a) practice (slow and steady wins the prize)
b) positive or negative emotional state associated with memory c) if new data can be associated with something previously learned (context or using cues) d) repeated testing: practice like you play |
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How does marijuana abuse affect memory
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impairs brain's ability to form short-term memories
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how does alcohol abuse affect memory
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impairs brain's ability to form new, long-term memories. Extreme form=blackout
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Homeostasis
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Maintaining constant internal conditions
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Negative feedback loop
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sense a change from baseline condition, turns on mechanisms that oppose change, and bring back to baseline
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Example of negative feedback loop
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example: body gets chilled. hypothalamus gland detects cold blood flowing to brain and signals Brain Stem to induce muscle shivering. Shivering muscles generate heat and war mthe blood, which is detected by the Hypothalamus. Hypothalamus stops signaling Brain Stem and muscle shivering stops
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Positive Feedback loops
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change in baseline condition amplified more and more in the same direction until something stops it.
"Vicious Cycle" |
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Example of positive feedback loops
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labor contractions. contractions of the Uterus case the release of the hormone Oxytocin from the hypothalamus, which causes additional contractions, which causes the release of more Oxytocin. This causes more contractions and more Oxytocin. This loop continues until the baby is born
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Thermoregulation: Typical human range of body temperature
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Typical human range of body temperature
98.6 (range 96-105) |
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Ectotherm
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External body heat
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Endotherm
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Internal body heat
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Poikilotherm
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variable body temperature
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homeotherm
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constant body temperature
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Vasoconstriction
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
-conserve heat when cold outside |
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Vasodilation
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
-release heat when hot outside |
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Behavioral Responses
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
-sunning to get warm -seeking shade or water to cool off -snuggling, cuddling, huddling |
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Evaporative Cooling
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
when water evaporates, it takes heat with it -sweat: if you have sweat glands -pant: if you don't have sweat glands -Turkey vulture: urinates on its own legs to cool off -Kangaroos lick wrists to cool off -run your wrists under cold water |
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Insulation
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
-fat insulate the body. Featers and hair can trap warm air against the body |
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Goose bumps
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a vestigial reaction to cold temperatures
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***Brown fat
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
specialized fat cells that burn fats to generate heat energy instead of ATP energy |
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Muscle shivering
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
generates body heat under cold conditions |
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Countercurrent Heat Exchange
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(Strategy for maintaining a constant body temperature)
Arteries and Veins are next to each other so cold venous blood is warmed by Arterial blood before going to body core |
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**Strategies for conserving energy
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Torpor, Hibernation, Aestivation, Acclimate
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Torpor
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(Strategy for conserving energy)
short-term physiological state with low metabolism and body temperature on very cold nights |
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Hibernation
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(Strategy for conserving energy)
long term physiological state with low metabolism and body temperature. often lasting weeks or months |
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Aestivation
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(Strategy for conserving energy)
daytime, summer, or dry season torpor |
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Acclimate
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a physiological adjustment to a new environmental temperature over the course of days, weeks, or months
*NOT ADAPTATION* |
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Are Dark colors warm or cold?
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absorb light energy and are WARM
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are light colors warm or cold?
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reflect light energy and are COOLER
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why doesn't a polar bear have black fur?
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white campouflage is mroe important for hunting
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How do polar bears stay warm?
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a) thick layer of fat for insulation
b) black skin c) special hair that reflects UV light onto the black skin to absorb light energy and warm them |
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Kidneys
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process about 12 gallons of blood per day
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Main functions of the Kidneys
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a) produce urine to carry wastes out of body
b) regulate red blood cell production c) regulate salts in blood d) regulate water in blood |
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urine
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the water-based fluid that carries nitrogen-containing wastes out of the body
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kidney-stones
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are solid crystal aggregations of minerals in urine. Very painful to pass! Chronic dehydration can be a cause
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Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
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causes kidneys to put more water into the blood. Produced in the Hypothalamus and stored in the Pituitary gland. Regulates salt in the blood by adding water or taking water away. Diabetes insipidus is excessive urination often due to low ADH levels in the body
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What is Diuretic?
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substance that causes kidney to remove water from blood, makes you urinate. Blocks ADH
examples: caffeine, alcohol |
