Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
242 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is life? |
At it's core, life is reproduction. |
|
|
What is the primary separator from abiotic to biotic life? |
Reproduction |
|
|
What happened about 20,000 years ago in this area? |
There were glaciers (evidenced by scratches in the rocks to show their movement). This movement of glaciers influenced living systems. |
|
|
What is a generally agreed upon theory in Biology? |
The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection |
|
|
What was prebiotic earth like? What does the term "prebiotic" mean? |
* The earth started as prebiotic (with only N2, H2 and CO2 gases). * Majority of O2 was "tied up" in other reactions (e.g. rust - iron oxide) * Prebiotic means "before life". |
|
|
What energy sources were acting on/were on earth at this time? |
Lightning, volcanoes, meteoroids, UV light |
|
|
What did these energy sources do? |
They triggered random chemical reactions, which produced the building blocks of life (sugars, acids, amino acids and lipids) |
|
|
What was the first "replicator" molecule to be created? |
RNA (ribonucleic acid) was the first replicator molecule. |
|
|
How would RNA gain more genetic material?
|
It would use small fragments (often called plasmids) to gain more material and genes. |
|
|
How accurate is RNA? What benefits/detriments does this lack of accuracy have? |
RNA is only 80% accurate in replicating itself, therefore 20% of the time, RNA produces a mutation. In nature ~90-95% of mutations are detrimental. However, approx 5% are useful. |
|
|
What benefits do these useful mutations have? |
These mutations make it easier for those that carry them to survive, and thus, more likely to pass on their mutated genes. |
|
|
How was DNA created? |
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) resulted from many, many, RNA mutations. |
|
|
How accurate is DNA in replicating itself? |
Unlike RNA, DNA is ~99.999% accurate in replication. |
|
|
As population density increases... |
Pandemic risk increases. |
|
|
Retroviruses are...? |
Viruses that are made up of RNA (HIV, Herpes, Spanish Influenza) |
|
|
These retroviruses (specifically HIV) are hard to cure because... |
Of their rapid mutation rates. |
|
|
Majority of today's diseases come from... |
Domesticated animals. |
|
|
How did the diseases spread from domesticated animals? |
They mutated to be able to attack people. |
|
|
What were organic components were created in labs? |
All twenty amino acids, sugars (in humans, glucose is the primary sugar), lipids (fats: solids at SATP, oils: liquids at SATP), the nucleic acids (purines and pyrimides), RNA and DNA |
|
|
What organic component is essential for reproduction? How much more energy does it have compared to sugar? |
Lipids (fats). There is 2.5x as much energy in fats as there is in sugars. |
|
|
How did predator and prey come about? |
As "replicator" organisms found they could eat other organisms to gain new genetic material, predator and prey system emerged. |
|
|
What did the prey do to counteract this new change? |
The prey (extremely simple organisms) used the proteins and enzymes that had developed to form protective shells. |
|
|
When was the origin of earth? |
4500 million years ago (Y.A) - origin of earth |
|
|
When was the origin of life on earth? |
4000 million Y.A - origin of life; prokaryotes, bacteria, cyno-bacteria (blue green algae; began photosynthesizing, releasing O2 gas) |
|
|
How old are the oldest discovered fossils? |
5500 million Y.A - the age of the oldest discovered fossils (found in Australia) |
|
|
When did the atmosphere first have measurable amounts of O2? |
2500 million Y.A |
|
|
When were the first eukaryotic cells? |
2000 million Y.A - the first eukaryotic cells form; eukaryotic cells need more energy, thus O2 was necessary for them to form |
|
|
When did the first multicellular organisms form? |
1000 million Y.A |
|
|
When did plants begin to colonize land (and animals colonize the sea)? |
500 million Y.A |
|
|
When did the dinosaurs become extinct? Why? |
63 million Y.A, a large meteor hit the earth causing winter (landed somewhere near Mexico). |
|
|
What are the oldest living relatives to dino's? |
Birds |
|
|
When did the first humans form? Where? |
1 million Y.A in modern day Africa |
|
|
When did Homo sapiens move out of Africa? |
40000 Y.A |
|
|
Who were all the humanoid subspecies, and where did they live? |
* Homo erectus lived in Africa, eventually moving to C. Europe. * In C. Europe, they encountered Homo neanderthalis (HN). HN was accustomed to a cold climate, was bigger and stronger. * Meanwhile, Homo sapiens began evolving in West Africa. |
|
|
What percentage of our genes are from HN? |
3-4% |
|
|
Where did Homo erectus meet Homo denisovan? |
In Central Asia. |
|
|
Who did Homo erectus meet in Indonesia? |
Homo florensis, who was smaller (due to the warm climate) |
|
|
What factors can RNA be selected for? |
- changes in temp - pH (acidity/alkalinity) - salinity (e.g. some species thrive in salt water, some in fresh) |
|
|
What are viroids? |
Viroids are essentially "naked" RNA molecules, these molecules support the theory of evolution, as these small pieces of RNA still exist. |
|
|
What are the simplest living forms on earth? |
Viroids |
|
|
What is Cadang-cadang? |
It is a plant disease that affects certain palms. It causes stunting, and death. It is a viroid. First identified in Philippines. Caused multi-million dollars in losses. |
|
|
What is a main difference between viroids and viruses? |
Viroids lack a capsid (glycoprotein protective layer) while viruses have a capsid. |
|
|
What is a virus? |
A virus is an obligate intercellular organism. (they must be inside another living organism to survive and reproduce) |
|
|
Are there viruses for both DNA and RNA? (and both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms?) |
Yes (here's a picture of a dude playing the bagpipes like a boss!) |
|
|
Where was the electron microscope invented? |
Canada! |
|
|
Name an example of a virus. |
T4 Bacteriophage Contains DNA |
|
|
What does the structure of the influenza virus look like? What virus is this similar to? |
This is similar to the HIV virus. (glycoprotein spikes on the outside, capsid surrounding it) Contains RNA (retrovirus) |
|
|
According to Mallory (Aarden raises question with this point, but whatevs), viruses are... |
Living |
|
|
What makes retroviruses so dangerous? |
RNA mutates very quickly (~20% of the time). This is why there is a new strain of influenza appears every year. |
|
|
What are the reproductive strategies for a bacteriophage? |
The Lytic and Lysogenic Cycle |
|
|
How is the phase (lytic or lysogenic) determined? |
The phase itself is dependent on our immune systems. (lysogenic when the virus is in a "rest" state) |
|
|
What is the one thing that all our ancestors have in common? |
They all had kids! (Makes me feel bad about not wanting kids. Sorry fam) |
|
|
Are most bacteria beneficial or harmful? |
Beneficial (e.g. bacteria in our stomach produce and enzyme that allows us to break down cellulose; some break down leaf litter) |
|
|
What are Cynobacteria? How large are they? |
They are also known as blue-green algae and are large enough to see with a light microscope. |
|
|
What are the three main shapes of bacteria? |
|
|
|
What has previously made bacterial infections so dangerous? |
A lack of antibiotics. (e.g. the Black Death in the 1300's) |
|
|
Where did the Black Death originate from? |
Marmots; mutated to infect people. Genghis Khan's armies ate the marmots, which spread the disease. Millions died. 70% of the UK. |
|
|
How was a cure discovered? |
Some people, were immune to the disease due to a genetic mutation (this same mutation also prevents some individuals from being infected with HIV) |
|
|
How large are prokaryotes? |
1-10 micrometres big |
|
|
How is Gram staining used to identify bacteria? |
Gram + - turns purple Gram - - turns pink - considered more pathogenic (pictured, E. coli) |
|
|
What do the terms "haploid" and "diploid" mean? |
Prokaryotes are haploid, thus having a single genetic strand. Most eukaryotes are diploid. |
|
|
What are the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? |
Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (DNA is found in nucleoid region). They lack chromosomes, having only genophores (circular strands of DNA) |
|
|
What is bacterial structure like? |
|
|
|
What are plasmids (small loops of DNA in bacterium) associated with? |
They are generally associated with antibiotic resistance. (e.g. gonorrhea developed a resistance to antibiotics during WWI as troops didn't take enough antibiotics to kill it) |
|
|
What are researchers currently using plasmids for? |
They are inserting genes into them to combat different things, such as artificially producing HG hormone to combat dwarfism. |
|
|
What are cell walls in prokaryotic cells made of? (See previous slides for structure) |
Peptidoglycan |
|
|
What is a capsule? |
A capsule is a gelatinous protein that offers additional protection to the cell |
|
|
What are pilli? |
Pilli are small surface hairs which act as a sensory system. Some bacteria also have a flagellum, a tail which they use for propulsion.
|
|
|
Asexual Reproduction |
Asexual ---binary fission - no exchange of genetic material - requires stable environment |
|
|
Sexual Reproduction (my favourite kind, tbh) |
Sexual - exchange of genetic material - works in unstable environment --- meiosis and mitosis ---conjugation-no sexual dimorphism-"maleness" - transferring genes-"femaleness" - receiving genes- variable amount of DNA transferred- mutations are a major source of variation |
|
|
What are phototrophs? |
- include cynobacteria use light to produce organic compounds from CO2 in the atmosphere. Very similar to photosynthesis. |
|
|
What are photoheterotrophs? |
They use light to produce organic compounds. Get CO2 from some organic substrate (e.g. leaf litter) |
|
|
What are Chemoautotrophs? |
They use energy from chemical reactions to produce organic compounds and get CO2 from the atmosphere. The chemicals include H2, S, NH3 and Fe |
|
|
What are chemoheterotrophs? |
They use energy from chemical reactions to produce the organic compounds they need. Get CO2 from organic substrates (e.g. leaf litter). |
|
|
What are saprophytes? |
They are bacteria, decomposers. They absorb the nutrients of dead matter. |
|
|
What are parasites? |
They absorb nutrients from live organic matter. |
|
|
What are obligate aerobes? |
They require oxygen |
|
|
What are obligate anaerobes? |
They require a lack of oxygen |
|
|
What are faculative aerobes? |
They do not require oxygen, but can use it if wanted. Eric is sexy af |
|
|
How much larger are eukaryotic cells versus prokaryotes? |
They are 100x larger; need a lot of energy |
|
|
What does the endoplasmic reticulum do? |
It transports nutrients around the cell, from nucleus to cytoplasm |
|
|
What do ribosomes do? |
They synthesize proteins |
|
|
What do the mitochondria do? |
Metabolism occurs here. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited from your mother's DNA. Mitochondria has its own DNA, can reproduce itself |
|
|
What does the nucleolus do? |
Stores RNA |
|
|
Where is our nuclear DNA from? |
Comes from dad! (thanks Dad) |
|
|
What does the Golgi Apparatus do? |
It packages cell products into vesicles |
|
|
What do the lysosomes do? |
Store enzymes (enzymes trigger only a single reaction) |
|
|
What do chloroplasts do? |
Very important in process of photosynthesis. Found only in green plants. |
|
|
What are the Five Kingdoms? |
Monera (eukaryotes), Protista (eukaryotic single celled organisms, amoeba), Plantae, Fungi, Annamalia (multicellular organisms) |
|
|
What are the three domains under Morena? |
Archaea, Cynobacteria and Bacteria |
|
|
Who pioneered the classification system? What order does it go in? |
Carl Linnaeus, Danish Scientist. Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |
|
|
What is a species? |
A group of interbreeding individuals that produce fertile offspring with reasonable variation genetically, physiologically, anatomically and behaviourally |
|
|
What are we now doing thanks to advances in genetics? |
We are identifying new species we originally thought were one. |
|
|
How genetically similar are we to chimpanzees? |
We are 98.5% the same as a chimpanzee |
|
|
What key characteristic sets Darwin finches apart? |
Their beak sizes |
|
|
How many species are their globally? Eric is an ******* who plagiarized my notes |
10-30 million |
|
|
How many named species are there? |
1.7 million named species |
|
|
Why is there so much species diversity? Who helped answer this question? |
Charles Darwin and Russell Wallace. Darwin was rich and he flunked out of med school, travelled around the world collecting and stuffing animals. He concluded it is through this diversity that new species are formed. Wallace concluded that same thing, but was poorer, sold stuffed exotic species. |
|
|
What did both Wallace and Darwin conclude? |
They concluded that a process called Natural Selection drives the evolution of new species |
|
|
What is Natural Selection based on? What are the two factors which affect it? |
Natural selection occurs each generation, and is based on individual variation. 1) Differential Survival - some die before their born, some before puberty - high mortality rate in males aged 18-28 2) Differential Reproduction - number one driving force in reproduction |
|
|
What is the "golden rule" of reproduction? |
Any characteristic (behavioural or otherwise) that will increase the chance you will/can produce offspring will be selected for. |
|
|
Who is the male with the most kids? |
Sultan of Morocco, 888 kids |
|
|
Who is the female with the most kids? |
A Russian woman, 69 kids (holy scheisse, she must have just been wrecked down there) |
|
|
What are clinial species? |
Organisms that are in the process of becoming a new species. (e.g. leopard frog) The Northern Ontario Leopard frog can breed with the New York Leopard frog but not the Florida Leopard Frog |
|
|
What are the two reproductive strategies? |
You can either reproduce through you (have kids, 50% you. Grankids, 25% etc.) or through your siblings (their kids 25% you, etc.) |
|
|
What are living tissues made up of? |
Water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins (enzymes), vitamins, minerals, nucleic acids |
|
|
Describe water in living tissues |
Cells are 70-95% water (most import. substance in living systems). Covers 3/4 of the planet. Has cohesiveness due to H-bonds (surface tension). Has high heat absorption, ocean and air currents are controlling the heat movement across the globe. |
|
|
What is the temperature range for living things? |
10-42 degrees Celsius (evaporation of water has a cooling affect, e.g. sweating) |
|
|
When is water heaviest? What does this cause? |
At 4 degrees Celsius. This causes "turnover" as the heavier four degree Celsius water falls to the bottom. |
|
|
What is an example of animals performing thermal regulatory behaviour? |
Beluga whales in Churchill, MA. Have their calves in warm bays, once its cold again, they no longer come into the the bay. |
|
|
How does acidity affect our ecosystems? |
Acid released from mining causes acid rain. (e.g cadmium and sulfur). Between a pH of 0-4 there is no life. |
|
|
How does salinity affect certain animals? |
Some animals, such as sharks and rays, require salt water to live (except in Lake Nicaragua). Others, such as bass, are fresh water only. Others still, such as a salmon, can swim in both |
|
|
What are carbohydrates? |
They are sugars, starches (plants), glycogen (animals), cellulose (plant cell walls) |
|
|
What are monosaccharides? |
They are simple sugars, such as glucose (C6H12O6). Glucose easily absorbs into cells, is soluble in blood |
|
|
Where do other sugars come from? |
Fructose from fruit, galactose from milk. |
|
|
What happens if you eat too much sugar? |
Historically we ate very little sugar. Can be two kinds of a diabetes. Type I is hereditary. Type II is associated w/ age and weight. As we age body produces less insulin. |
|
|
Why is insulin necessary? |
Insulin is created in pancreas (hormone); needs insulin to get into cells. If you have little insulin it means sugar cannot metabolize (build up can be deadly). |
|
|
What are dissaccahrides? |
Sucrose (table sugar). Two monosaccarhides joined together. glucose + fructose = sucrose |
|
|
What is maltose? |
Found in beer. glucose + glucose = maltose |
|
|
What is lactose? Why can some people drink milk but not others? |
Lactose is found in milk. All young mammals produce lactase, however at sexual maturity the gene flicks "off", and you no longer can digest lactose. Due to increased domestication of cattle, this gene is not switching off in many cultures. |
|
|
What is neotony? |
neotony: the process by which traits that exist before sexual maturity continue to exist into adulthood |
|
|
What are polysaccahrides? |
They are long chains of 3 or more simple sugars (often thousands). (e.g. starch, main storage material in plants). Starch can be simple or branched, helical or spiral. |
|
|
What are the top four sources of starch world wide? Where is it found? |
Found in vacuole and plastids. 1) Wheat (domesticated from Middle East) 2) Rice (domesticated in far East) 3) Potato (domesticated in Mexico, 4x more calories than grasses) 4) Corn (domesticated in Mexico, 4x more calories than grasses) |
|
|
What is another polysaccarhide? |
Glycogen, main storage material in animals. Humans can digest it. Very branched, 1000's of sugars. Stored in liver and muscle cells. |
|
|
What are cellulose and hemicellulose? |
These structural groups make up the cells walls of plants, animals cannot digest it. |
|
|
What do animals do to digest these? |
Animals form symbiotic relationships with bacteria; bacteria produce enzymes to break down cellulose. THIS IS A MAJOR SOURCE OF EVOLUTION (cows have four stomachs, as its a great source of energy but hard to digest). |
|
|
What are the two kinds of fermenters? |
Forgut fermenters (ungulates, e.g. cows) - digest cellulose at beginning of the digestive system - mouth, esophagus, stomach (4 chambers), SI, caecum, LI, rectum Hindgut fermenters - digest cellulose at the end of the digestive system - mouth, esophagus, stomach, SI, caecum (large), LI, rectum |
|
|
What is rumination? |
Changes in behaviour to digest cellulose. foregut fermenters bring food back up and chew it again ("cud") hindgut forementers are coprophilic (they eat poop, isn't fully digested, still have energy). Mice, rabbits. |
|
|
What are carnivores? |
They eat only meat. Meat has all essential nutrients. Simple digestive systems. Gut/body mass ratio very low (high muscle mass) |
|
|
What are herbivores? |
Eat only plants. Gut/body mass ratio very high (low muscle mass) |
|
|
What is chitin? What is it made of? |
Made of polysaccharides, insectivious birds get energy from this |
|
|
What is pectin? |
Polysaccarahide in fruits, can be digested. |
|
|
What are lipids? |
They are fats and oils. |
|
|
Where is fat stored on the body? |
Subcutaneous fats: stored under skin, first to burn off Organic fats: stored around organs, second to burn off Bone marrow fat: stored in bone marrow, where blood cells are made. V. important. Yellow, solid bone marrow = healthy |
|
|
What are the kinds of fat? |
White, yellow or brown fats. Brown fat has more energy per kilo. Most common in hibernators, (bears). Babies have this for the first month or so. |
|
|
What does a fat molecule look like? |
Glycerol, fatty acids chains |
|
|
What do the lengths of chains mean for the state of the fat? |
Shorter chains = liquid at room temp Longer chains = solid at room temp |
|
|
What are seasonal fat cycles? |
Times of year when you tend to put on fat. During high fat years, animals tend to have larger litters than low fat years. |
|
|
What are phospholipids? |
They have a phosphate molecule connected (gives polarity to the molecule) |
|
|
What do phospholipids make up? |
They make up the phospholipid bilayer around our cell membranes. "fat sandwich - molecules/phospholipids/molecule". Semi permeable. Allow some substances, not all. |
|
|
What is cholesterol? What does it do? |
Cholesterol is a steroid. (males precursor to T, create male secondary sex characteristic e.g. deep voice). Essential for spermatogenisis. In females it is a precursor to estrogen and progesterone (production of eggs, high voice). Also hardens cell membrane so its not too mushy. |
|
|
Where is produced? |
75% of cholesterol is produced in liver (largely due to genetics) 25% comes from food (red meat, high fat) - Circulates in blood and goes to the rest of the body |
|
|
How does "the pill" work? |
Prior to ovulation, ^ estrogen produced, if pregnant body has ^ amnt progesterone (stops uterus muscles from contracting). The pill fools your body into thinking you're preggers. |
|
|
What factors influence cholesterol production? |
As you age, less hormones = more left over cholesterol. Cholesterol can clot in blood, clots break, and end up in brain or heart causing stroke/heart attack. |
|
|
What are waxes? Where are they found? |
Waxes are found on the cuticle of plant leaves and in our ears. They have antibodies that prevent disease, and prevents dessication (drying). |
|
|
What about whale earwax? |
Whales have plugs of earwax, if removed, you can count the rings and see how old the whale is. |
|
|
What do proteins do? |
50% of dry weight of most cells. Provide support, transportation. Important for movement. Enzymes, and certain hormones. |
|
|
What forms do they come in? |
Proteins can be amino acid polymers: 1) amino acid chains 2) amino acids (containing N) |
|
|
How many amino acids are there naturally? |
20 |
|
|
What is an example of an amino acid? |
Glycine. N or NH3 on their own is toxic (nitrogenous waste, urea, uric acid). If kidney's fail, that scheisse builds up in your blood. Proteins are necessary for complex systems. |
|
|
What is a polypeptide versus a protein? |
50 or less amino acids in a chain = polypeptide >50 = protein |
|
|
What is the primary structure of proteins? |
the sequence of amino acids (e.g lys-val-gly-phe) |
|
|
What is the secondary structure? |
coiling or folding config. (alpha helix or beta-pleated sheets) |
|
|
What is tertiary structure? |
Polypeptide bridges, formed with disulfides. |
|
|
What is quarternary structure? |
number of different proteins joining/interacting |
|
|
What is collagen? |
A fibrous protein, not elastic. Found in skin, tendons (achilles tendon). Has three intertwined subunits. |
|
|
What is hemoglobin? |
Hemoglobin is a globular protein in RBC, has two subunits, primary carrier of O2 in the blood. |
|
|
What are those two subunits? |
Haem and globin. Haem has iron, and is recycled in the liver. Spleen breaks down RBC. Globin is excreted through the gallbladder --> common bile ducts --> SI --> feces. Emulsifies fats (e.g. soap) |
|
|
What are prions? |
Prions are small bits of proteins, that attach to larger proteins and change their shape, also changing their function. |
|
|
What is Creutz-Feldt Jokob Disease? |
First discovered in humans. Effects central nervous system (brain, spine). Causes destruction of CNS and death. |
|
|
What is Mad Cow Disease? |
Causes cattle to die as prions attacks CNS. Transmitted in feed lots, as cows were fed small bits of brains. Countries such as Europe and NA suffered. Millions of dollars in cattle lost. |
|
|
What is Chronic Wasting Disease? |
It is found in wildlife (deer, elk). Possibly spread from domesticated to wild, just as Bovine TB is spread from cows to bison. |
|
|
What are the differences between DNA and RNA? |
|
|
|
Which cells in our bodies do not replicate? |
Spinal, brain and muscle cells do not replicate. Muscle cells only grow in size. |
|
|
What is the process of DNA making RNA called? |
Transcription |
|
|
What is the process of RNA making proteins called? |
Translation |
|
|
What are nucleic acids? |
Polymers of nucleotides |
|
|
What are the two families of nucleic acids? |
Pyrimidines and Purines. Pyrimidines have six sided rings (C, T, and U) while Purines have five sides, G and A. |
|
|
Who figured out codons? What are codons? |
Codons are a series of 3 bases that code for one amino acid. Watson and Crick figured this out. (e.g ACT) |
|
|
What is a chromosome? |
A chromosome is a DNA chain. (different lengths in females and males, females XX males XY. Males have less genetic material). |
|
|
What does helicase do? |
It unwinds the DNA molecule. |
|
|
What do Single Strand Binding Proteins (SSBP's) do? |
They keep 2 parts of the DNA apart |
|
|
What is Priming? |
Priming is required to start replication. Primase activates the one gene to open the DNA, adds short RNA molecule to the start point. |
|
|
What does DNA polymerase do? |
DNA polymerase moves along the DNA (once primer is in place) and adds nucleotides in the appropriate spot |
|
|
What two pieces of eukaryotic DNA made up of? |
They are made up of introns and exons. Introns do not code for anything, "junk". Exons are expressed externally. Exons ultimately code for proteins. |
|
|
Do prokaryotic cells have introns? |
No. Only exons. |
|
|
What are prions? |
Small bits of protein that attach to larger proteins and change their shape (thus changing their function). |
|
|
What is Creutz-Feldt Jokob Disease? In what species was it first discovered? |
First discovered in humans, effects CNS. Causes destruction of CNS and eventually death. |
|
|
What is Mad Cow Disease? |
Causes cattle to die as prions attack CNS, transmitted to cattle in feed lots (were fed neural tissue of other animals). Cows eat "fake" processed food, not grass in North America. |
|
|
What is Chronic Wasting Disease? What species does it affect? What disease is this similar to? |
Esp. affects deer, elk. Possibly spread from domestic deer to wild animals. Causes pneumonia, listlessness, and can even make deer lose the will to eat (willful starvation). Similar to Bovine TB which spreads from cows to wild bison. |
|
|
What are the two types of code in our bodies? |
DNA and RNA. RNA is used for protein synthesis. |
|
|
What cells in our bodies do not replicate? |
Spinal cord, brain, and muscle cells. (Muscle cells just grow larger) |
|
|
Is mitosis sexual or asexual? |
Asexual. Cloning process produces 2 identical daughter cells; occurs in most tissues |
|
|
How often do transcription and translation occur in our bodies? |
Daily |
|
|
What are nucleic acids? |
Polymers (chains) of nucleotides |
|
|
What are nucleotides made up of? |
Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group |
|
|
What are the two families of nucelotides? What are their characteristics? |
Pyrmidines - six sided ring (C, T, U); Purines - 5 sided ring (A, G). DNA is a code (template) for RNA, decides which proteins will be produced. |
|
|
Where is U (uracil) found? |
RNA only |
|
|
Who discovered codons? What are codons? |
Watson and Crick. Codons contain three bases (e.g. TAC) which will code for a specific amino acid. |
|
|
What is a chromosome? |
A form of condensed DNA chain. Have complex, specialized structures. |
|
|
What does helicase do? What does the -ase prefix tell us? |
It unwinds the DNA molecule. -ase corresponds to an enzyme |
|
|
What are Single Strand Binding Proteins (SSB's)? |
They keep the two strands of DNA apart. |
|
|
What sex contains more genetic material? Are X, or Y chromosomes larger? |
X chromosomes are bigger, females contain more genetic material (XX versus XY) |
|
|
What is Priming? What is primase? |
Priming is required to start replication. Primase activates the one gene to begin opening the DNA. Adds a short RNA molecule to the start point. |
|
|
What is DNA polymerase? |
Once primer is in place, moves along DNA molecule and adds nucleotides in the appropriate location |
|
|
Are introns or exons expressed externally? What does each do? |
Exons are expressed externally. Introns are "junk" DNA, exons ultimately code for proteins. Prokaryotic cells have no introns. |
|
|
What is exocytosis? |
Product is moved out of the cell (large, cannot move through protein channels). Product is packaged in a vesicle, slowly moved through cell membrane |
|
|
What is endocytosis? |
Large product is moved into the cell (cell membrane eats it) |
|
|
What is anaerobic respiration? What is aerobic? |
No O2 is involved , O2 is essential |
|
|
What does lactic acid buildup cause? |
Total muscle fatigue, causes muscles to stop contracting |
|
|
Aerobic respiration |
|
|
|
What is the name of NAD? |
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate |
|
|
In what plants does photosynthesis (PSN) occur? |
Green plants; light reaction needs light. Dark reaction occurs with both light and dark. |
|
|
What are chlorophyll a and b? What colours do they absorb? |
A - red, orange, yellow B - blue, violet |
|
|
What percentage of us is genetically controlled? |
68% |
|
|
What is meiosis? |
Sexual reproduction; cell division in gametes that produces variable cell types (e.g. not identical). Siblings are about 50% the same as you. |
|
|
What are the sexual cells in humans and plants? |
Women - ova; Men - sperm; Plants - anthers |
|
|
What is haploid? What is diploid? |
Gametes; half as many chromosomes and genes (N). Diploid - full set of chromosomes (2N), 46 in humans |
|
|
What are triploid species? Who studied them? |
They have 3 sets of chromosomes e.g. blue spotted salamander (some are diploid, some triploid). E.g. green tree frog (triploids sound different than diploid). Dr. Bogart studied these in Guelph. |
|
|
What is Down Syndrome? |
It is trisomy of chromosome 21. |
|
|
What is a form of prokaryotic division? |
Fission (essentially mitosis in prokaryotes) |
|
|
What is G1 and G2 stages? |
G1 - period of growth; G2 - preparation for division, S-Interphase DNA synthesis occurs |
|
|
What is mitosis? What are the stages? |
|
|
|
What do plant cells have in telophase? |
A cell plate forms between the two cells |
|
|
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have? |
23 pairs, karytope (last pair is sex chromosomes). All are homologous pairs. |
|
|
What are the sex chromosomes in humans, birds, grasshoppers and honey bees? |
XY XX, ZZ ZN, X XX, 16 chromosomes 32 chromosomes (Queen) |
|
|
What is the goal of meiosis? |
To reduce chromosome number by half |
|
|
What is oogenisis? |
Female meiosis, retain resources for early embryonic development |
|
|
What is spermatogenisis? |
All chromosomes are divided equally; only thing that distinguishes males from females - females produce larger nutrient filled gametes |
|
|
How long does spermatogenisis take to occur? How many spermy wormies are produced? |
72 hr process, 4 sperms (sperm? Is sperm the plural of sperm? Sperms?) |
|
|
What happens when sperm meets egg? (BEBE) |
When sperm meets egg, acrosome releases enzymes that makes a hole in egg, only the head of sperm actually goes into the egg (side note: does this hurt? I feel like this would hurt) |
|
|
What makes sperm sweet? (Dude, I thought it was just me tbh) |
Fructose! It actually makes them swim |
|
|
How much is the average male ejaculate? How many spermies (I've decided spermies is the plural of sperm now) does it contain? |
In males, average ejaculate is 2mL, 1% actual sperm. Contains 2-400 million spermies. |
|
|
What if you have less than 200 million sperm? |
You're not having kids anytime soon, sorry. (infertility!) |
|
|
At what age in males does testosterone (T) production decrease? |
About 30 years old |
|
|
Mendelian Genetics |
Named after Gregor Mendel who did experiments with peas, |
|
|
What is the Principle of Segregation? |
In sexually reproducing organisms each kind of hereditary trait (gene) comes in pairs. The units of each pair segregate from each other in meiosis and end up in separate gametes. |
|
|
What is a monohybrid cross? |
Only analyzes one set of alleles |
|
|
What is a test cross? |
It is a test if you want to see if an individual is heterozygous dominant (Tt). Cross the individual with a homozygous recessive (tt), if heterozygous 50% of offspring will be recessive |
|
|
What was lucky about Gregor Mendel's research? |
He picked traits on separate chromosomes |
|
|
What is crossing over? |
Crossing over occurs between chromosome pairs as they "switch" DNA sections |
|
|
What is incomplete dominance? |
Both alleles are expressed (e.g. if R codes for red and r white then Rr would be pink) |
|
|
What is codominance? |
Two alleles are expressed on the same body (e.g. paint horses, dalmations and freckles) |
|
|
What are C3 and C4 plants? |
C3 plants (northern plants, incorporate 3 carbons in PSN) while C4 plants (Cacti) are more efficient |
|
|
What is the benefit of some trees having needles as leaves? |
- Prevents drying (in winter, air is dry) without this conifers would lose too much water - Can perform PSN earlier in the spring than trees that lost their leaves |
|
|
What is a gene? |
A hereditary unit; most traits are controlled by many genes |
|
|
What are alleles? |
Different representations of the same gene |
|
|
What is Haemophilia? |
"Bleeders disease", sex-linked, blood does not clot. Queen Victoria (9 kids) had this mutation on one of her X chromosomes, passed it on to her kids. Today we have drugs that enhance clotting |
|
|
Is male homosexuality genetically linked? |
Yeah - controlled by a gene on the X chromosome. Higher economic in cities with lots of gays (Don't tell Trump!) |
|
|
Who helped discover the multiple allele blood system? |
Norm Bethume (Canadian dude) |
|
|
What are epistatic genes? |
Interfere with other genes expression; |
|
|
What is pleiotrophy? |
One gene affects many other traits (e.g. both hair and eye colour) |
