Aqa Psychology, Research Methods

Front 1

What is the experimental method?

Back 1

- involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on the dependent variable (can be lab/field/natural/quasi)

Front 2

What is an aim?

Back 2

- A general statement of what the purpose of an investigation is (based on theories)

Front 3

What is a hypothesis?

Back 3

- A clear, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

- stated at the start of the study

Front 4

What are the two types of hypothesis?

Back 4

- Directional

- Non directional

Front 5

What are variables?

Back 5

- Anything that can vary/change with an investigation

- generally used to determine if changing one thing results in a change to another

Front 6

What is the independent variable (IV)?

Back 6

- Aspect manipulated to measure the effect of the DV

Front 7

What is the dependent variable (DV)?

Back 7

- Variable measured and is affected by changing the IV

Front 8

What is operationalisation?

Back 8

- Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Front 9

What two experimental conditions do you need to test the effect of the IV?

Back 9

- control

- experimental

Front 10

What are extraneous variables?

Back 10

- any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controllede

- essentially nuisance variables that may just make it harder to detect a result

Front 11

What are confounding variables?

Back 11

- any variable that affects the DV other than the IV, so we can't be sure of what exactly changed the DV (systematically vary with the IV)

Front 12

What are demand characteristics?

Back 12

- cues from the researcher/situation that may reveal the investigation purpose to the participants, possibly leading to the participant changing their behaviour in the research situation (may affect the DV)

Front 13

What are investigator effects?

Back 13

- the investigator's conscious/unconscious behaviour affecting the research (DV)

- Includes study design/participant selection/participant interaction/leading questions

Front 14

What is randomisation?

Back 14

- using chance to control bias effects when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

Front 15

What is standardisation?

Back 15

- using the same formalised procedures/instructions for all participants in a study

- ensures non-standardised changes don't act as extraneous variables

Front 16

What is the experimental design?

Back 16

- the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Front 17

What is an independent groups design?

Back 17

- Two groups of participants exposed to two different conditions (control/experimental)

Front 18

What is a repeated measures design?

Back 18

- all participants take part in all conditions of experiment

- ISSUES: participants may become aware of the study

Front 19

What is a matched pairs design?

Back 19

- pairs of participants matched on variables that may affect the dependent variable

- one member of the pair assigned to condition A, other to condition B

Front 20

What are the evaluation points of an independent groups design?

Back 20

- participants in conditions not the same=participant variables may affect DV

- less economical=each participant contributes to one result

- no order effects=less likely to expose aims

Front 21

How do you combat participant variables in an independent groups design?

Back 21

- random allocation

- ensures participants have same chance of being in one condition as any other

Front 22

What is counterbalancing?

Back 22

- half of the participants experience conditions in one order, the other half in opposite order

Front 23

What are the evaluation points of repeated measures design?

Back 23

- order effects=create boredom/fatigue=cause performance deterioration in second task=confounding variable

- participants more likely to find study aim=demand characteristics

- participant variables controlled/fewer participants needed

Front 24

How do you combat order effects in a repeated measures design?

Back 24

- counterbalancing

Front 25

What are the evaluation points of a matched pairs design?

Back 25

- participants in single conditions=order effects/demand characteristics less of a problem

- participants never matched exactly=may effect the dependent variable

- less economical=matching time-consuming/expensive

Front 26

What are the four types of experimental method?

Back 26

- laboratory experiments

- field experiments

- natural experiments

- quasi experiments

Front 27

What is a laboratory experiment?

Back 27

- conducted in a highly controlled environment e.g classroom

Front 28

What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?

Back 28

- high control over extraneous variable=ensure effects on DV are due to IV change=high internal validity

- easier to replicate=new extraneous variables don't affect repeats=reliability

Front 29

What are the limitations of laboratory experiments?

Back 29

- artificial=doesn't reflect everyday life=lack external validity=generalisability

- participants aware they're in an experiment=demand characteristics

- artificial tasks don't reflect real processes=low mundane realism

Front 30

What is a field experiment?

Back 30

- IV is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting

Front 31

What are the strengths of field experiments?

Back 31

- higher mundane realism=natural environment=valid/authentic behaviour (high external validity)

Front 32

What are the limitations of field experiments?

Back 32

- less control of extraneous variables=cause and effect between IV and DV more difficult to establish/precise replication not possible

- ethical issues=participants unaware of being studied can't consent

Front 33

What is a natural experiment?

Back 33

- an experiment where the change in the IV isn't by the researcher, but are pre-existing IV

- research records effect on DV

Front 34

What are the strengths of natural experiments?

Back 34

- provide opportunities for research that may not be done due to ethical/practical reasons (institutionalised Romanian orphans)

- high external validity=involve study of real-life issues as they happen (effects of natural disaster on stress levels)

Front 35

What are the limitations of natural experiments?

Back 35

- naturally occurring event may be rare=reduced opportunities for research=limit generalising to other situations

- participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions=less sure if IV affected DV

Front 36

What is a quasi experiment?

Back 36

- IV based on an existing difference between people (age/gender)

- no one manipulates it, it just exists

Front 37

What are the strengths and limitations of a quasi experiment?

Back 37

- carried out under controlled conditions=ensure effect on DV is due to IV

- cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions=may be confounding variables

Front 38

What is a population?

Back 38

- group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn (target population=subset of general population)

Front 39

What is a sample?

Back 39

- group of people who take part in a research investigation

- drawn from a (target) population, presumed to be representative

Front 40

What are the different sampling techniques?

Back 40

- random sample

- systematic sample

- stratified sample

- opportunity sample

- volunteer sample

Front 41

What is a random sample?

Back 41

- sophisticating sampling;all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected

- assign all members of the target population a number and use a randomiser to generate your sample (lottery method)

Front 42

What is a systematic sample?

Back 42

- every nth member of target population chosen for sample

- sampling frame of target population produced, organised

- sampling system decided and research works through sampling frame

Front 43

What is a stratified sample?

Back 43

- sophisticated form of sampling: sample composition reflects proportions of people in sub groups within target population

- identify sub groups (strata) in target population;work out proportions for sample to be representative;no. people per strata chosen (random sampling)

Front 44

What is an opportunity sample?

Back 44

- select anyone willing/available (representative sample too difficult)

- ask whoever is around at time of study (e.g in the street)

Front 45

What is a volunteer sample?

Back 45

- participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self-selection)

- researcher places advert/participants raise hand when researcher asks

Front 46

What are the evaluation points of a random sample?

Back 46

- researcher has no influence on who is selected=no researcher bias

- complete target population list hard to get (difficult/time-consuming)

- may still end up with an unrepresentative sample

- participants may refuse to take part=unrepresentative

Front 47

What are the evaluation points of a systematic sample?

Back 47

- selection system=researcher has no influence=no researcher bias

- fairly representative (still could be unrepresentative, although unlikely)

- selected participants can refuse to take part

Front 48

What are the evaluation points of a stratified sample?

Back 48

- members of strata randomly selected=beyond researcher influence=no bias

- designed to reflect population composition=representative=findings generalisable

- cannot reflect how people are different=not complete representation

- participants can refuse to take part

Front 49

What are the evaluation points of an opportunity sample?

Back 49

- convenient=less time/effort/money

- bias: sample specific to area of study=finding can't be generalised;researcher can select participants who will prove hypothesis correct (research bias)

Front 50

What are the evaluation points of a volunteer sample?

Back 50

- easy/little researcher input/less time-consuming

- volunteer bias=may attract a specific type of person=can't generalise findings

Front 51

What are ethical issues?

Back 51

- conflict between participants rights in studies and goals of research to produce valid data

Front 52

What are the ethical issues with psychological studies?

Back 52

- informed consent

- deception

- protection from harm

- privacy and confidentiality

Front 53

What is informed consent?

Back 53

- making participants aware of research aims/procedures/rights/how data will be used=informed judgement to take part

- researchers=asking informed consent may cause unnatural behaviour as they know the aim of the study=study meaningless

Front 54

What is deception?

Back 54

- deliberately misleading/withholding info from research participants=cannot give informed consent

- can be justified when doesn't cause distress to participants (revealing all info may affect behaviour)

Front 55

What is protection from harm?

Back 55

- participants shouldn't be at any more risk than they would in their daily lives=protected from physical/psychological harm

Front 56

What is privacy and confidentiality?

Back 56

- participants can control info about themselves

- under Data Protection Act=right to have personal data protected

Front 57

What is the BPS code of conduct?

Back 57

- BPS code of ethics=ethical guidelines for researchers to observe

- closely matched to ethical issues=ensure participants in research treated correctly

- ethics committees use cost-benefit approach to see if research is ethically acceptable

Front 58

How do you deal with the ethical issue of informed consent?

Back 58

- participants given consent form with relevant info for their decision (agree=sign)

- udner 16 investigations=parental consent required

Front 59

What are the three types of consent?

Back 59

- presumptive consent

- prior general consent

- retrospective consent

Front 60

What is presumptive consent?

Back 60

- group similar to participants asked if study is acceptable

- If they agree, participant consent is presumed

Front 61

What is prior general consent?

Back 61

- participants consent to multiple studies including one involving deception=participants consenting to being deceived

Front 62

What is retrospective consent?

Back 62

- participants asked for consent after study

- may not have been aware of participation or may have been deceived

Front 63

How do you deal with the ethical issue of deception and protection from harm?

Back 63

- Debriefing

- end of study=participants told true aims and other details of investigation (debrief)

- participants told what data will be used for and given right to withhold data

- participants concerned about performance reassured behaviour is normal

- participants subject to extreme stress should be provided counselling by researchers

Front 64

How do you deal with the ethical issue of confidentiality?

Back 64

- personal details not recorded (anonymity);personal details protected

- researchers refer to participants as initials/numbers in write ups of investigation

- in briefing/debriefing=participants reminded of their data protection

Front 65

What is a pilot study?

Back 65

- A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation to check that procedures work, allowing the researcher to make changes if needed

Front 66

What is a single-blind procedure?

Back 66

- participants not told the aim of research at the beginning of the studies as well as other details, to control confounding effects of demand characteristics

Front 67

What is a double-blind procedure?

Back 67

- participant and researcher not aware of study aims (usually an independent third party)

- mainly used in drug trials with testing real drugs/placebo

Front 68

What are naturalistic observations?

Back 68

- watching/recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur

- Aspects of the environment free to vary

Front 69

What are controlled observations?

Back 69

- watching/recording behaviour in structured environment (variable managed)=manipulating independent/extraneous variables

Front 70

What are covert observations?

Back 70

- participant behaviour watched/recorded without their knowledge/consent (ethical if public behaviour being observed)

Front 71

What are overt observations?

Back 71

- participant behaviour watched/recorded with their knowledge/consent

Front 72

What are participant observations?

Back 72

- researcher becomes a member of the group being watched/recorded

Front 73

What are non-participant observations?

Back 73

- Researcher stays out of the group they're watching/recording

Front 74

What are the evaluation points of naturalistic and controlled observations?

Back 74

Naturalistic: high external validity;generalisable;unreplicable;extraneous variable

Controlled: less generalisable;replicable;controlled extraneous variables

Front 75

What are the evaluation points of covert and overt observations?

Back 75

Covert: less participant reactivity;increased validity;ethical issues

Overt: ethically acceptable;demand characteristics/participant reactivity likely

Front 76

What are the evaluation points of participant and non-participant observations?

Back 76

Participant: increased insight=increased validity;going native=lose objectivity

non-participant: stay objective=less bias;may lose insight=decreased validity

Front 77

What is an unstructured observation?

Back 77

- Write everything they see;produces detailed accounts of behaviour;appropriate for small scale observations

Front 78

What is a structured observation?

Back 78

- too much occurring to record all of it;simplify target behaviours which are the focus of the investigation;researcher can quantify observations with pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods

Front 79

What is continuous sampling?

Back 79

- key feature of unstructured observations;all instances of target behaviour are recorded;complex behaviours=not practical

Front 80

What is event sampling?

Back 80

- counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in a target individual/group

Front 81

What is time sampling?

Back 81

- recording behaviour in a time frame determined beforehand using a behavioural checklist

Front 82

What are the evaluation points of structured and unstructured observations?

Back 82

Structured: produces quantitative data=easier to compare behaviour;no observer bias;data less rich in detail

Unstructured: qualitative data=difficult to observe/record/analyse;data more rich in detail;greater risk of observer bias

Front 83

What are the evaluation points of behavioural categories?

Back 83

- makes data more structured/objective=categories must be clear (observable)

- all possible forms of target behaviour must be included on the checklist

- categories should not overlap

Front 84

What are the evaluation points of event and time sampling?

Back 84

Event: useful when target behaviour happens infrequently;observer may overlook important details

Time: reduces number of observations that have to be made;instances when behaviour sampled may be unrepresentative of whole observation

Front 85

What are self-report techniques?

Back 85

- methods where a person is asked to state/explain in their own feelings/opinions/behaviours/experiences related to a given topic

Front 86

What are questionnaires?

Back 86

- a set of written questions used to assess a person's thoughts/feelings

- may be used as part of experiment to assess dependent variable

Front 87

What are open and closed questions?

Back 87

Open: doesn't have fixed range of answers;free to answer how they want;produce qualitative data

Closed: fixed number of response;produces quantitative data

Front 88

What are the strengths of questionnaires?

Back 88

- cost-effective=gather lots of data quickly

- little effort involve=can be completed without researcher present

- produces data easy to analyse=comparisons between groups

Front 89

What are the limitations of questionnaires?

Back 89

- responses may not be true=present themselves positively (demand characteristic=social desirability bias)

- produce response bias

Front 90

What are interviews?

Back 90

- live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts

- questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes on

Front 91

What are structured interviews?

Back 91

- pre-set questions in fixed order

- questionnaire conducted face-to-face

Front 92

What are unstructured interviews?

Back 92

- like a conservation;no set questions;general aim discussed;free flowing interaction;interviewee encouraged to expand

Front 93

What are semi-structured interviews?

Back 93

- between two above types;most common interview;list of pre-set questions;interviewer free to ask follow-up questions

Front 94

What are the evaluation points of structured and unstructured interviews?

Back 94

structured: standardised=easily replicable;reduces differences between interviews;interviewer can't elaborate

unstructured: more flexible;not easy analysis=conclusions difficult;interviewee may lie;build rapport=truthful answers

Front 95

What is the Likert scale?

Back 95

- respondent indicates agreement/disagreement using 5 point scale which ranges fro 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'

Front 96

What is the Rating scale?

Back 96

- Similar to Likert scale, but respondents identify value to represent strength of feeling to a topic

Front 97

What is a fixed choice option?

Back 97

- includes list of possible options, respondents indicate those that apply to them

Front 98

What do you need to consider when designing an interview?

Back 98

- interview schedule=questions

- quiet room

- neutral questions at start=rapport

- reminded of confidential answers

Front 99

What is 'overuse of jargon'?

Back 99

- using technical terms only familiar to those in a specialised field

Front 100

What is 'emotive language/leading questions'?

Back 100

- author's attitude to topic becomes clear in questions=interviewer bias

Front 101

What is 'double barreled questions/double negatves'?

Back 101

- double barrelled: 2 questions in 1=respondents may agree with on half and not the other

- double negatives: difficult to decipher

Front 102

What are the evaluation points of primary and secondary data?

Back 102

primary: authentic data collected;questionnaires designed to target info researcher needs;takes time/effort to produce

secondary: cheap/easy access=minimal effort;desired info may already exist;vary in quality/accuracy=outdated;content may not match researcher's needs