A&p 2 - Chapter 16 - Endocrine System

Front 1

Endocrine glands secrete:

Back 1

hormones!

Front 2

What are hormones?

Back 2

chemical messengers that are transported throughout the body by the bloodstream

Front 3

What do exocrine glands excrete?

Back 3

non-hormonal substances which pass through ducts to the skin or to structures that communicate with the exterior

Front 4

How many ducts do endocrine glands have?

Back 4

NONE

Front 5

How are hormones released from endocrine glands?

Back 5

Released into interstitial fluid then diffused through capillaries

Front 6

Which organs have both endocrine and exocrine glands?

Back 6

the pancreas, ovaries, and testes

Front 7

These are chemical messengers which act on nearby cells ONLY.

Back 7

paracrines

Front 8

What is the purpose of hormones?

Back 8

to regulate the metabolic functions of other cells

Front 9

What are the two different bases of hormones?

Back 9

most are amino acid based

some are steroid based

Front 10

Amino acid based hormones are derived from:

Back 10

amino acid derivatives, peptides, and proteins

Front 11

Steroid based hormones are derived from:

Back 11

cholesterol

Front 12

Steroids are produced by what two structures?

Back 12

the adrenal cortex and the gonads

Front 13

Each hormone affects only certain cells, known as:

Back 13

target cells

Front 14

What hormones are considered water-soluble?

Back 14

all the amino acid based hormones except for thyroid hormone

Front 15

What hormones are considered lipid soluble hormones?

Back 15

steroids and thyroid hormone

Front 16

How do water-soluble hormones function?

Back 16

They bind to specific receptors on the surface of the target cell plasma membrane

Front 17

How do lipid-soluble hormones function?

Back 17

They pass through the plasma membrane and bind to intra-cellular receptors, which then bind to DNA

Front 18

For a target cell to respond to a hormone, it must have the __________ __________ for that particular hormone

Back 18

specific receptors

Front 19

The degree of target cell response depends on 3 factors:

Back 19

1. the blood level of the hormone
2. the relative numbers of target cell receptors for that hormone
3. the affinity of the receptors for the hormone

Front 20

A increase in any of these three factors will cause an _______ in the target cell response

Back 20

increase

Front 21

Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms:

Back 21

free or bound to plasma proteins

Front 22

Lipid soluble hormones are usually bound to :

Back 22

protein

Front 23

water soluble proteins are usually :

Back 23

free

Front 24

Some hormones are broken down in the target cell, but most are removed by :

Back 24

the liver or kidneys

Front 25

This is the time required for a hormone's concentration to be reduced by half:

Back 25

half-life

Front 26

Can the body take hours, sometimes days, to respond to a hormone?

Back 26

yes

Front 27

Most hormone synthesis and release is regulated through __________ _________ mechanisms:

Back 27

negative feedback

Front 28

Endocrine gland stimuli may be :

Back 28

humoral, neural, or hormonal

Front 29

Explain how humoral stimuli work:

Back 29

blood levels of specific ions or nutrients produce a direct response

Front 30

Give an example of a humoral stimuli:

Back 30

PTH

Front 31

Explain how neural stimuli work:

Back 31

direct stimulation of the gland by nerve fibers

Front 32

Explain how hormonal stimuli work:

Back 32

the gland responds to a hormone secreted by another gland

Front 33

Give an example of a neural stimuli:

Back 33

adrenal medulla secretion

Front 34

What's another name for the pituitary gland?

Back 34

hypophysis

Front 35

Where is the pituitary gland located?

Back 35

in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

Front 36

The pituitary gland is connected to the __________ by a stalk called the ____________.

Back 36

hypothalamus; infundibulum

Front 37

The pituitary consists of 2 lobes known as the:

Back 37

anterior and posterior

Front 38

The posterior lobe is made of :

Back 38

nerve tissue

Front 39

The posterior lobe releases ______________, which are made in the hypothalamus

Back 39

neurohormones

Front 40

The posterior lobe and infundibulum make up the _________________.

Back 40

neurohypophysis

Front 41

The anterior lobe is also known as the ____________ and is made up of:

Back 41

adenohypophysis; glandular epithelial tissue

Front 42

The anterior lobe and the hypothalamus are connected by the ________ _______ system:

Back 42

hypophyseal portal

Front 43

The hypothalamus secretes ___________ and ___________ hormones, which control the anterior pituitary.

Back 43

releasing and inhibiting

Front 44

The anterior pituitary secretes 6 major hormones:

Back 44

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PLN, and GH

Front 45

Which hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are considered tropic?

Back 45

TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH

Front 46

Which hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are considered non-tropic?

Back 46

growth hormone and prolactin (PLN)

Front 47

What does it mean when a hormone is considered tropic?

Back 47

it controls other endocrine glands

Front 48

Growth hormone (GH) stimulates :

Back 48

bone growth and an increase in muscle mass

Front 49

Is growth hormone considered catabolic or anabolic?

Back 49

anabolic (builds)

Front 50

Production of GH peaks during ________ and declines with ______ .

Back 50

adolescence ; age

Front 51

Increased secretion of GH in childhood causes :

Back 51

gigantism

Front 52

Increased secretion after the epiphyseal plates have closed causes :

Back 52

acromegaly

Front 53

The characteristics of acromegaly are:

Back 53

an enlargement of the bones of the hands, feet, and face

Front 54

Decreased secretion of GH during childhood causes :

Back 54

pituitary dwarfism

Front 55

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates :

Back 55

the secretion of thyroid hormone (TH)

Front 56

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates:

Back 56

the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids, especially glucocorticoids

Front 57

Which two hormones are known as gonadotropins?

Back 57

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

Front 58

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) regulate the function of the :

Back 58

gonads (ovaries and testes)

Front 59

Levels of FSH and LH increase during :

Back 59

puberty

Front 60

Prolactin (PLN) stimulates:

Back 60

milk production by breast tissue

Front 61

Excessive secretion of endocrine hormones is most commonly due to a :

Back 61

neoplasm (tumor) of that gland

Front 62

The posterior pituitary secretes two hormones:

Back 62

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone

Front 63

Oxytocin stimulates :

Back 63

uterine contractions during childbirth

Front 64

How is oxytocin helpful in medical situations:

Back 64

medically (IV) to induce or speed-up labor

Front 65

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes:

Back 65

increased reabsorption of water in the DCT and collecting ducts

Front 66

The __________ monitors the osmolality of the blood and regulates its release

Back 66

Hypothalamus

Front 67

At high concentrations, ADH causes:

Back 67

Vasoconstriction

Front 68

Decreased secretion of ADH causes:

Back 68

Diabetes insipidus- high urine output and thirst

Front 69

The thyroid is located just inferior to the __________

Back 69

Larynx

Front 70

How many lobes does the thyroid have? What are they connected by:

Back 70

Right and left lobes; by an isthmus

Front 71

The thyroid is composed of follicles that are filled with:

Back 71

Colloid

Front 72

What is colloid composed of?

Back 72

Thyroglobulin; a protein that stores thyroid hormone

Front 73

Colloid is made by what?

Back 73

Follicle cells

Front 74

Thyroid hormone is a mixture of what two substances?

Back 74

Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)

Front 75

What is the major hormone produced by the thyroid?

Back 75

Thyroxine (T4)

Front 76

Most t3 is made from _______ in the _________ _________

Back 76

T4 ; target tissues

Front 77

What does thyroid hormone do?

Back 77

Increases basal metabolic rate (o2 consumption by the mitochondria) and body heat production

Front 78

Production of thyroid hormone requires the uptake of ________ by the follicle cells

Back 78

Iodine

Front 79

TSH stimulates the follicle cells to release ______ into the blood, where it is carried by ________ _________

Back 79

TH ; transport proteins

Front 80

TH is ______ - soluble and binds to receptors in the ________ _______ _________

Back 80

Lipid, target cell nucleus

Front 81

When blood levels of TH are low, TSH secretion is _________

Back 81

Increased

Front 82

When blood levels of TH are high, TSH secretion is__________

Back 82

Decreased

Front 83

Low th levels can be due to what two factors?

Back 83

Malfunctioning thyroid gland, or due to a low TSH output

Front 84

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Back 84

Cold intolerance, constipation, edema, lethargy, bradycardia

Front 85

If the thyroid gland is the cause of hypothyroidism, then:

Back 85

The TSH level wil be high.

Front 86

This is an enlargement of the thyroid:

Back 86

Goiter

Front 87

What is goiter caused by:

Back 87

Low iodine in the diet ( now present in salt)

Front 88

Excess TH is known as :

Back 88

Hypothyroidism

Front 89

Hypothyroidism causes:

Back 89

A high metabolic rate, weight loss, heat intolerance, diarrhea, Nervousness and tachycardia

Front 90

Calcitonin is made by the:

Back 90

Parafollicular cells

Front 91

What is the function of calcitonin?

Back 91

To lower the blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoblasts and inhibiting osteoclasts

Front 92

Does the uptake of calcium into the bones increase or decrease with the presence of calcitonin?

Back 92

Increase

Front 93

Parathyroid glands are located on the __________ aspect of the thyroid

Back 93

Posterior

Front 94

Occasionally parathyroid glands are found in other areas of the _______ or_______

Back 94

Neck, mediastinum

Front 95

How many parathyroid glands are there usually?

Back 95

4 (but can be more or less)

Front 96

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the most important hormone regulating :

Back 96

Blood calcium levels

Front 97

Release of PTH causes a(n) increase/decrease in blood calcium levels

Back 97

Increase

Front 98

Secretion of PTH is stimulated by ? Inhibited by?

Back 98

Stimulated by low calcium levels; inhibited by high calcium levels

Front 99

PTH works through what 3 target sites?

Back 99

Bones, kidneys, and the small intestine

Front 100

How does PTH effect osteoclasts? What does this do to calcium levels?

Back 100

Stimulates osteoclasts, releases calcium into the blood

Front 101

How does PTH effect the renal tubules?

Back 101

It increases calcium reabsorption in the renal tubules

Front 102

How does PTH affect vitamin D? What does this cause?

Back 102

Stimulates vitamin D, more calcium is then absorbed by the intestinal mucosa

Front 103

Elevated PTH levels can be caused by what? What does this do to calcium levels?

Back 103

Tumors, hypercalcemia

Front 104

What are the symptoms of hypercalcemia?

Back 104

Thinning of the bones, muscular weakness, kidney stones

Front 105

Decreased PTH levels are often caused by what?

Back 105

Surgical removal

Front 106

Hypocalcemia caused by decreased PTH levels causes what symptoms?

Back 106

Severe tetany (muscle spasms) and possible death

Front 107

Where are the adrenal glands located?

Back 107

At the superior pole of each kidney

Front 108

What is the inner medulla of the adrenal gland made out of?

Back 108

Nervous tissue

Front 109

What type of tissue is the cortex of the adrenal gland made up of?

Back 109

Glandular tissue

Front 110

The adrenal cortex produces _________ , which are made from __________

Back 110

Corticosteroids, cholesterol

Front 111

What are the three regions of the adrenal cortex and what do they make?

Back 111

1) the outer layer makes mineralocorticoids
2) the middle layer primarily makes gluticosteroids
3) the inner layer primarily makes sex hormones

Front 112

What regulates fluid balance and the electrolyte concentrations of extracellular fluids?

Back 112

the mineralocorticoids (mostly aldosterone)

Front 113

what is the most important mineralocorticoid?

Back 113

aldosterone

Front 114

Aldosterone does what to sodium and potassium? where does this occur?

Back 114

stimulates sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion

in the renal tubules

Front 115

What does increased reabsorption of sodium do to water levels? What does this do to blood volume and blood pressure?

Back 115

increases water reabsorption

increases blood volume and blood pressure

Front 116

Aldosterone secretion is stimulated mainly by :

Back 116

the renin-angiotensin mechanism (specifically angiotensin 2)

Front 117

Besides the renin-angiotensin mechanism, what stimulates the release of aldosterone?

Back 117

low sodium levels and high potassium levels

Front 118

Glucosteroids help protect the body from :

Back 118

long-term stress

Front 119

glucosteroids help protect the body from what SPECIFIC instances?

Back 119

major hemorrhages, major trauma, infection

Front 120

What is the primary glucocorticoid?

Back 120

cortisol

Front 121

Secretion of glucocorticoids is stimulated by what?

Back 121

ACTH

Front 122

glucocorticoids are controlled by what type of feedback mechanism?

Back 122

negative feedback

Front 123

Stress can also cause an increase in _______ secretion and therefore ________ secretion

Back 123

ACTH, cortisol

Front 124

The primary effect of glucocorticoids is to ______ blood glucose levels.

Back 124

increase

Front 125

How do glucocorticoids increase blood glucose levels?

Back 125

breaks down proteins

Front 126

Once proteins are broken down by glucocorticoids, what happens?

Back 126

amino acids are then converted to glucose (gluconeogenesis)

Front 127

Are glucocorticoids anabolic or catabolic?

Back 127

catabolic

Front 128

What do excess glucocorticoid levels do to connective tissue formation? What does this do for trauma to the body?

Back 128

depresses it

slow wound and fracture healing

Front 129

glucocorticoids do what to inflammation and the immune system?

Back 129

decreases inflammation and supresses the immune system

Front 130

How are glucocorticoids medically used?

Back 130

to decrease inflammation (in arthritis)

Front 131

Excessive glucocorticoid levels cause what condition?

Back 131

cushing's syndrome

Front 132

What happens to the body during cushing's syndrome?

Back 132

elevated blood glucose levels, muscle wasting, moon face, central obesity

Front 133

What is the most common cause of cushing's syndrome?

Back 133

medical administration of glucocorticoids

Front 134

What is another cause of cushing's syndrome?

Back 134

pituitary (ACTH) or adrenal tumors

Front 135

Another name for adrenal insufficiency is?

Back 135

Addison's disease

Front 136

Adrenal insufficiency does what to glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids?

Back 136

causes inadequate production

Front 137

Addison's disease eventually leads to:

Back 137

hypoglycemia, hypoatremia, and hypotension

Front 138

What are the sex hormones produced by the adrenal glands? In what sex?

Back 138

androgens and estrogens

in both sexes

Front 139

What can happen to women who have an androgen secreting tumor?

Back 139

masculinization

Front 140

The adrenal medulla makes? What two specifically?

Back 140

catecholamines

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine

Front 141

The adrenal medulla is part of the _______ _______ system

Back 141

sympathetic nervous

Front 142

The adrenal medulla helps the body cope with:

Back 142

short-term stress

Front 143

The adrenal medulla secretes about ______ % epinephrine and _______ % norepinephrine. How similar are their effects?

Back 143

80%, 20%

very similar

Front 144

The pancreas contains about 1 million ________ ______ which produce the pancreatic ________

Back 144

pancreatic islets

hormones

Front 145

Alpha cells of the pancreas produce:

Beta cells produce:

Back 145

glucagon

insulin

Front 146

Alpha cells and beta cells are involved in regulating:

Back 146

blood glucose levels

Front 147

Glucagon targets the ________ where it promotes the ______ and ______ of glucose into the blood (glycogenolysis), ____ blood glucose levels.

Back 147

liver ; production and release ; raising

Front 148

Release of glucagon is stimulated by :

Back 148

low glucose levels

Front 149

Insulin is a ____ amino acid _______

Back 149

51, polypeptide

Front 150

Insulin is released to ____ blood glucose levels.

Back 150

lower

Front 151

How does insulin work?

Back 151

stimulates insulin receptors, increases the transport of glucose into most cells of the body

Front 152

What organs DO NOT require insulin for the transport of glucose?

Back 152

the liver, kidneys, and brain

Front 153

What is glucose stored as?

Back 153

glycogen or fat

Front 154

Insulin is a(n) anabolic or catabolic hormone?

Back 154

anabolic

Front 155

Insulin is stimulated by ___ blood glucose levels

Back 155

increased

Front 156

This condition results from decreased secretion of insulin or from decreased cellular response:

Back 156

diabetes mellitus

Front 157

What happens to glucose levels in the urine in a person with DM?

Back 157

increase (spilled into urine)

Front 158

Without insulin, cells must utilize _____ for energy:

Back 158

fats

Front 159

when cells utilize fats for energy, they produce organic acids known as:

Back 159

ketone bodies or ketones

Front 160

Excessive amounts of ketones can cause ________

Back 160

ketoacidosis (life-threatening)

Front 161

The 3 cardinal signs of diabetes mellitus:

Back 161

polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia

Front 162

polyuria is due to:

Back 162

incomplete reabsorption of glucose in the renal tubule

Front 163

polyuria causes _____ ______ leading to _____ and _____ imbalance

Back 163

osmotic diuresis

dehydration and electrolyte imbalance

Front 164

polydipsia is due to:

Back 164

dehydration and increased osmolality

Front 165

polyphagia is due to:

Back 165

inadequate glucose within the cells

Front 166

hypoglycemia can cause ____ sympathetic output and ____ mental functioning

Back 166

increased, decreased

Front 167

type 1 is seen in _______ and is due to:

Back 167

children; autoimmune loss of beta cells

Front 168

Is there any insulin produced in type 1 diabetes?

Back 168

no

Front 169

Patients with type 1 DM are prone to _____ and require ______ administration

Back 169

ketoacidosis (DKA)
insulin

Front 170

Approximately how many DM cases are type 2?

Back 170

90%

Front 171

Is type 2 hereditary? What other factors increase type 2 DM?

Back 171

yes, obesity and lack of exercise

Front 172

Is there any insulin produced in type 2 diabetes?

Back 172

yes

Front 173

In type 2 DM, the cells do not respond normally. what is this called?

Back 173

insulin resistance

Front 174

Is DKA still commonly seen in type 2 patients? Is insulin admin. required?

Back 174

no, no

Front 175

The major complications of DM include :

Back 175

atherosclerosis and neuropathy (nerve damage)