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66 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What was public opinion like in the run up to the War? |
- Mood was generally one of dread
- July 1914: 100k protested against the prospect of war in Berlin |
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How was the War justified in August 1914 and what was the public reaction?
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The war was depicted as defence against Slav oppression, which managed to form a certain consensus around it.
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What was the political reaction to the start of the War? What did the War mark the start of?
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- The Kaiser said that "I see no parties anymore, only Germans" - All 110 SPD deputies (despite hesitance from 14) voted in favour of war bonds to fund the war - This marked the start of Burgfrieden or Burgfriedenspolitik (castle peace) |
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What was the first major shift of political power of the War? |
- The 1914 Enabling Act, which transferred most legislative power to the Bundesrat. - The Reichstag continued to review legislation, however did not change any of the 800 laws passed during the War |
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Where did responsibility for German wartime bureaucracy lie? |
In the War Ministry who oversaw the allocation of resources by the handful of state-run corporations. - Strengthened the influence of the traditional bureaucracy |
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What were the main events of the War in 1914? |
- August: The Schlieffen Plan was launched for victory on two fronts. The march through Belgium was very successful - little resistance. However, supplies found it hard to keep up with German forces. - Victories at Tannenburg and the Masurian Lakes in the East gave Generals Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff legendary status. - Turning point: Battle of the Marne, end of September; German forces halted and forced to dig trenches beginning a race to the sea to try and outflank Britain - stalemate. |
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How many casualties had Germany sustained by the end of 1914? |
650k |
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What were the main events of the War in 1915? |
- New Army C-in-C: Erich von Falkenhayn - Falkenhayn saw the Schlieffen Plan was a failure and decided that they needed victory on one front before going back to the other. OHL decided to try and win in the East (but Falkenhayn disagreed). - German forces were able to push the Russians back 250 miles but were not able to force them out of the War. - Failure of the Allies against German defences in the West confirmed Falkenhayn's belief that they needed victory in the West and a submarine campaign to knock the British out of the war. |
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What significant non-combatant event threatened to tip the War in favour of the Allies? |
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania, 1915. |
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How and why did the British strike at the German food supply? Why was this so effective? |
- An order to seize all Germany-bound vessels in response to a February 1915 blockade of Britain by Germany - 25% of German food consumption in 1914 was of imported food. |
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What were major problems for German supply aside from the blockade? |
- The military took priority over transport therefore supply to cities was limited - The bureaucratic chaos of the state |
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What steps were taken to try and control the distribution of food? |
- January 1915: creation of the Imperial Grain Corporation then 40 other Imperial Corporations who then competed over control. - 1916: The War Food Office set up to try and control the madness. |
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Example of a counterproductive German food decision and its consequence. |
1915: 9 million pigs killed to reduce grain consumption - led to less pork and fertiliser for the rest of the war |
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What problem did wartime conscription cause for Germany? |
- Labour shortage: mobilisation called up 1/3 of the argricultural workforce, 1/2 by the end of 1914; led to a fall in grain production from 27m tonnes in 1914, to 22m in 1915 (17m in 1918) |
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How did German society notably limit the maximisation of labour usage? |
Women were not employed in the Armed Forces nor were they conscripted to work. |
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How did women get involved in the labour market? |
- By end of the War, 1/3 of the industrial workforce were women (including 40% of Krupp Enterprises) - However, many of these were women previously working in lower paid domestic jobs (moved for better pay), fewer new women started working. |
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When did the government introduce rationing? (+ a few rationing juicy facts) |
- Rationing of bread introduced in January 1915, followed by other items - People took to consuming Ersatz goods like Ersatz coffee made of tree bark - Rationing sometimes v harsh: animal fats needed to make glycerol so rationed massively; 1918 ration was 8% of the pre-war level |
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What were the limited acts of opposition in 1914-16? |
- Karl Liebknecht became the only SPD deputy to vote against war bonds at the end of 1914; 20 did so at the end of 1915 - Liebknecht & Rosa Luxembourg called for peace via revolution and thus spent the rest of the War in prison - Pacifist groups like the German Peace League formed but had no impact |
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What was Falkenhayn's core strategy from 1916? |
Attrition and endurance - Ermittlung |
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What were the key events of the War in 1916? |
- February: the Battle of Verdun sought to force a French surrender; lasted until December; 700k casualties for nothing - May: Battle of Jutland; Germany sank more British ships but the blockade continued - July: Allies begin the Battle of the Somme; lasts until November; 1m killed/wounded on both sides - August: Russians launched Battle of Galicia against Austro-Hungary; Germany forced to send reinforcements; did halt Russian advance - August: Romania entered the War for the Allies |
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What was the immediate consequence within OHL for the disaster of 1916? |
Falkenhayn fell from office. |
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What was the extent of the damage of 1916? |
1.5 million German casualties |
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Who replaced Falkenhayn? What did this signify? |
- Erich Ludendorff became General Quartermaster while Paul von Hindeburg took over as head of OHL. - This marked the beginning of a quasi military dictatorship, with Ludendorff now the most powerful man in Germany |
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How was Ludendorff's power limited? |
- The Kaiser was no less important and had to be consulted. - The bureaucracy still coordinated the war effort. - The Reichstag controlled the budget and represented public opinion (ish) |
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How did Ludendorff and Hindenburg clash with Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg? |
- They rejected negotiated peace. - All resources had to be channeled into the war until its conclusion - Russia had to be knocked out and subjected to a harsh peace settlement - The German people should be rewarded for their efforts with vast land expansions |
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What was the tactical change that came with this new leadership? |
The Hindenburg Programme of total war; sought to mobilise all resources efficiently to the war effort. - New War Minister, Hermann von Stein appointed and the Supreme War Office set up to oversee mobilisation of resources. |
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What was the centrepiece of the Hindenburg Programme? |
The Auxiliary Labour Law, passed by the Reichstag in December 1916. |
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What did the Auxiliary Labour Law do? |
- Required all men ages 17 to 60 to work if needed - DID allow union officials to sit on the bodies that allocated workers (contrast with army's normal anti-union stance) - Forced labour in all but name |
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What were the failures of the Hindenburg Programme? |
- The Supreme War Office did not resolve bureaucratic chaos or close down non-essential industries (faces opposition from business) - Auxiliary Labour Law failed to mobilise extra men because there were none. - Increased demand for munitions strained resources even more. |
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Where did the Hindenburg Programme succeed? |
It DID lead to an increase in the production of munitions. - Machine guns: 1915 - 6100, 1916 - 27.6k, 1917 - 115k (4x increase '16-'17) - Explosives: 1915 - 72k tonnes, 1916 - 120k tonnes, 1917 - 144k tonnes (2x from '15, +1/6 from '16) |
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When were shortages greatly exacerbated? |
The winter of 1916/7 |
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Examples of goods in short supply during the winter of 1916/17. |
- Coal (production in 1917 90% that of 1913 despite increased demand) so streetlights dimmed and trams cut - Less fat + coal = less soap - Clothing - Potatoes; poor harvest due to weather; turnips used as Ersatz ('Turnip Winter') - Livestock - potatoes were a major food source |
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What was the human impact of the 1916/17 winter? |
Deep psychological damage and hunger for many years despite improvement in crops. Impact felt worst by the urban workers who did not have access to cheap food. |
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A few Winter 1916/7 juicy facts. |
- Shortages had knock-on effects in food chain; daily production and animal fats fell by 1/3 in 1917 - Soup kitchens set up; 6 million meals given out in Hamburg in April '17 alone - State controlled food price but not supply; peasants would hoard grain if they didn't like the price - Food queues common, nicknames the Polonaise |
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How did food rations go from 1916 to the end of the War? (Figures from Essen in the Ruhr) |
- Daily protein ration 25% of requirement in Summer '16; rose to 39% by end of War - Daily fats: 18% in Summer '16, 10% at end of war - Daily carbs: 60% in '16 vs 71% in '18 - All three spiked in Winter '17/'18 (carbs to 100%) |
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What were the social consequences of the 1916 shortages for rural workers and peasants? |
- Didn't like govt regulation or interventions; state prices too low - Post-1917, there was a lack of labour despite 1m POWs working the land - Resented the Junkers (kept tax privileges until 1916) and the urban war profiteers |
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What were the social consequences of the 1916 shortages for urban workers? |
- Didn't like bureaucracy and food shortages - Disliked the black market (between 20% and 35% of food sold their) - Blamed this ^ on the middle class, speculators and sometimes Jews |
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What were the social consequences of the 1916 shortages for the middle class? |
- Entered a different world without servants and less valuable savings
- Mittelstand (lower middle class) saw the gap between them and the working class close - indignity |
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What were the major events of 1917 in the War? |
- January: H+L decide to try to bring down Britain by unrestricted submarine war; despite fears, inc from B-H, this would lead to USA joining the war - March: withdrawal behind the defensive Hindenburg and Siegfried Lines - April: 875000 tonnes of Allied shipping sunk; convoy system adopted by UK in response - April: USA entered the War - May-June: failed attempts to break the German defensive lines were costly; 16 Corps of French army mutinied - October: Italians defeated at Caporetto - November: Bolshevik Revolution |
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What was the political impact of America's entry to the War? |
War with the democratic USA was problematic for pro-democracy parties like the SPD. |
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How was opposition stirred up in the 1916/17 period? |
- People across Germany began to question whether sacrifices were worth it - May/June 1916 strikes in Berlin calling for "Freedom, Bread and Peace" - Karl Liebknecht arrested and thousands protested in support - March 1917 Revolution in Russia inspired leftist discontent |
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What was the catalyst of the acceleration of opposition in 1917? |
April 1917 ration cuts; massive protests calling for food and peace (300k+ in Berlin alone) - Workers' councils formed in model of the Russians |
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What was the political reaction to the formation of workers' councils? |
- Opposed by trade union leaders and the SPD deputies - Supported by the USPD (formed in April after being thrown out of SPD earlier in year) |
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What was the USPD's membership like? |
100k by 1918 |
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What were the USPD's major policy points? |
- Immediate end to the war followed by social reform - Immediate repeal of the Auxiliary Labour Law - No more war loans |
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What was the formation of the USPD an example of? |
The growing political polarisation of German politics |
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How did the Kaiser try to assuage SPD concerns about the War? |
B-H persuaded him to make the 'Easter Offer' in April '17, promising reform of the Prussian Landtag voting system and the Bundesrat after the War. - Had very little effect on public opinion. |
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What was the source of the major political blow to the German pro-war establishment in 1917? |
The July Crisis; began with DZP & SPD trying to link more war bond spending in July to 'peace without victory' - B-H disagreed but therefore lost the confidence of Reichstag and OHL so resigned |
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Who replaced Bethmann-Hollweg? |
Ludendorff nominee George Michaelis |
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What was the crux of the July Crisis of 1917? |
Matthias Erzberger's (DZP) Peace Resolution, calling for 'peace without annexation' which passed through the Reichstag 212-116 |
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How did political polarisation become more apparent in the latter parts of 1917? |
- August: Pope Benedict XV issued a peace plan, supported by Peace Resolution supporters - September: Fatherland Party formed, in support of a victory peace; 1m members by end of year; Peace League for Freedom and Fatherland formed to support a more moderate peace - October: Michaelis sacked & replaced by DZP's Georg von Hertling; lots of debate over constitutional reform |
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How was distaste for moderation shown in 1917/18? |
Richard von Kühlmann (appointed Foreign Minister in Aug '17) seen too favourable of negotiated peace w/o annexation but extending influence to the East. - H&L engineered his dismissal in July 1918 |
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What was a major act of opposition in early 1918? How did it end? |
Strikes in January engineered by the USPD in munitions factories. - Large scale (1m+) allowed union and SPD infiltration - Settlement reached quickly |
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How was German morale bolstered in early 1918? |
March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia - Russia left the war - Seizure of lots of Eastern Europe - 75% of Russian coal & iron, most of oil and cotton and 1/3 of its population now in Germany |
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How was the new broad consensus of 1918 shown? |
All Reichstag parties but the USPD votes in favour of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk |
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What was the military consequence of the Treaty? |
Victory in the East; 1/2 million troops could be transferred to the West Ludendorf Offensive launched in March to push the Allies back |
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How did the Ludendorff Offensive go? |
By July, they had advanced 80 miles and were exhausted. Allied counter-attack pushed them back to the Hindenburg Line by September. |
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What was the impact of defeat in September? (marked by surrender of Bulgaria) |
- Ludendorff ordered beginning of negotiations. - Max von Baden appointed Chancellor of a coalition government in October - Kaiser was prepared to cede constitutional reform (power to Reichstag, democratic Prussia, cabinet properly codified) - Prince Max began negotiating with the Allies and Ludendorf resigned (replaced by Groener) |
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How did the late September/early October 1918 'revolution from above' show democratic change? |
- Military rule ended - Reichstag deputies formed some of the new government, including some from the largest party - Constitutional form made the government and military accountable |
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How did the late September/early October 'revolution from above' show social change? |
- The government now contained some middle classers and workers as opposed to just Junkers - The government was now accountable to the Reichstag, which represented the lower classes too |
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What were the public reactions to negotiations? |
- Early November mutinies, starting in Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, by the Navy - Soviets established in various cities including Hamburg - November socialist revolt in Munich led to declaration of a socialist republic in Bavaria - Government had clearly lost control |
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How did the late October/early November 1918 'revolution from below' show democratic change? |
Many ordinary Germans were involved in the disturbances. |
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How did the late October/early November 1918 'revolution from below' show social change? |
Sailors and workers soviets represented a new, radical form of political organisation in Germany that put power in the hands of the working classes. |
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How did power change hands during the negotiations? |
- The Allies demanded the Kaiser's abdication for armistice; Wilhelm fled to Holland on the 10th November - SPD withdrew support for Max's govt and Friedrich Ebert became Chancellor in a SPD-USPD coalition |
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How did the 9th November abdication of the Kaiser and declaration of a republic show democratic change? |
- End of the reign of the unelected Kaiser - Elected politicians came to power - Leader of the new government, Ebert, led the largest party in he Reichstag |
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What were the 11th November conditions for ceasefire? |
- Withdrawal to east of the Rhine - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and terms of Romanian surrender were reversed so Germany were to withdraw from eastern Europe - 150 submarines + many naval vessels confiscated |
