Social Psychology - Social Cognition, Schematic Processing & Heuristics

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Social cognition refers to how

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people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgements and decisions.

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People categorise their social world in an attempt to

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impose some order, simplifying and structuring the social world.

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Ash's configural model is a ______ based model of _____ ______, in which central traits play a ________ role in configuring the _______ ______.

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gestalt;
impression formation;
disproportionate;
final impression.

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Traits that have a disproportionate influence of the configuration of final impressions in Ash's configural model of impression formation are called

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central traits

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Traits that have an insignificant influence on the configuration of final impressions, in Ash's configural model of impression formation are called

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peripheral traits

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In Ash's configural model the traits _____ & _____ are central traits that independently resulted in a more favourable impressions than _____ & ______, Most influential were the _____/______ traits.

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warm; polite;
blunt; cold;
warm/cold;

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What the 6 main biases in forming impressions?

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1. primacy/recency
2. positivity/negativity
3. personal constructs and implicit personality theories
4. physical appearence
5. stereotypes
6. social judgeability

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Primacy and recency bias shows that the

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order in which information about a person is presented can have profound effects on the subsequent impression.

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An order of presentation effect in which earlier presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition is known as the

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primacy effect

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Ash found evidence for a ______ effect when ______ information was presented ______ than when ______ information was presented _____.

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primacy;
positive;
first;
negative;
first.

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An order of presentation effect in which later presented information has a disproportionate influence of social cognition is called the

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recency effect.

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Research has shown that in the acence of information to the contrary people tend to assume the ___ of others and form a ____ impression. If there is any ______ information people are biased to forming a _____ impression.

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best;
positive;
negative;
negative.

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People are biased to negative information for two reasons:

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1. information is distinctive and therefore attracts our attention (cognitive)
2. information signifies potential danger (survival).

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Widely shared and simplified evaluative images of a social group or its members is known as a

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stereotype

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Stereotypes are _____ representing ________ views about the characteristics of a specific _______ _______.

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schemas;
consensual;
social category.

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Ambiguous information is interpreted ________ or __________ according to one's _________.

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meaningful;
disambiguated;
stereotype.

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A schema is a _____ _____ that represents knowledge about a _______ including its attributes and the ______ among those attributes.

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cognitive structure;
concept;
relations.

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Once invoked, schemas facilitate a ___ ___, ____-driven or ____-driven processing as opposed to ______ ___ or _____-driven processing.

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top down;
concept;
theory;
bottom up;
data

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What are the 5 different types of schemas?

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1. person schemas
2. Role schemas
3. Scripts
4. Content free schemas
5. Self schema

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A prototype is the

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cognitive representation of the typical defining features of a category eg psychlogist

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Fuzzy sets are

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categories that are a fuzzy set of features organised around a prototype.
ie a university lecturer

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Exemplars are specific

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instances of a member of a category.

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Macrae, Milne & Bodenhausen (1994) in their dual task experiment, listening to information about indonesia and monitoring traits words on the computer screen they found two things;

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1. people remember more schema consistent information
2. schematic processing is automatic and releases cognitive resources for other tasks ie recalled more about Indonesia

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Cohen (1981) in his experiment of the waitress versus the librarian demonstrated that

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different schemas lead to memory biases and false reconstructions.

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Murphy & Zajonic is their study of automatic/subliminal presentations found that people liked the Chinese ideograph when it was preceded by a subliminal presentation of a

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happy face

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Crusco & Wetzel (1984) showed that a brief touch on the hand when returning change resulted in

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customers leaving bigger tips

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Subliminal manipulators has a

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priming effect

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Social cognitive processes can operate below our

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usual level of awareness

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We are not trustworthy in reporting the bases of our

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social actions

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Accurate reports about our cognitive processes may occur when influences are

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salient and plausible

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Accessible schemas are ones that are

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habitually used or salient in memory.

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Schemas that are functional and accurate enough for immediate interactive purposes have

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circumscribed accuracy.

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When the outcome of a decision depends on the actions or attitudes of others people tend to

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attend more to to other people.

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Accountability for a decision results in greater

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viligance and attention to data and generally more complex cognition.

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The higher the cost of indecisiveness the more heavily people rely on _____ and need less ______.

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schemas;
evidence.

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Based on the automaticity of schema activation and errors in human inferences is the idea that people take

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mental shortcuts whenever they can by relying on schemas.

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Chemas lend a sense of _____, ______ and _____ to the social world that would otherwise be highly complex and unpredicatable. There are strong pressures to _______ schemas.

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order;
structure;
coherence;
maintain.

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Schema acquisition and development makes schemas generally more

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accurate.

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Dijksterhuis & can Knippenburg in their 'soccer hooligan' experiement showed that people suppress

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schema inconsistent information

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Schema inconsistent information is better recalled when it is

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salient or has personal significance

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If you attend to schema inconsistent information you can use this to

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develop the accuracy of your schema.

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Stanger & McMillan in their meta analysis found that the stronger the schema the

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increase in recall for circumstances that are congruent.

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The automatic activation of stereotypes in an

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insideous process that can inhibit our accuracy and effectiveness.

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People can change their activation of schemas by consciously

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attending to the person and suspending prejudice.

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The automatic activation of stereotypes is likened to the cognitive process of

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spreading activation theory

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The organisation of a person in memory generally shows that exemplary instances are more likely is the person is a _____ or ____ _____. But for ______ people we rely on ______.

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friend or family member;
unfamiliar;
schemas.

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Rothbart suggested 3 process of schema change, these are:

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1. Bookeeping - gradual change
2. Conversion - accrual of disconfirming information
3. Subtyping - formation of a subtype in the face of disconfirming information

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Which process of schema change does research support?

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subtyping

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The property of a stimulus that makes it stand out in relation to other stimuli and attract attention is known as

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salience

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Salient people _____ attention and tend to be considered more _______ in a group. They are also seen as more _______ responsible for their behaviour and are ______ more extremely.

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attract;
influential;
personally;
evaluated.

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Aronsen, Wilson and Akert found that in general people are _____ _____ able to choose a variety of ______ _____.

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Flexible thinkers;
Mental strategies.

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When the stakes are _____ people use more ______ ______, are more _____ and are more _____ to notice facts that are in _____ with their prior schemas.

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high;
sophisticated strategies;
accurate;
likely;
conflict.

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Unlike automatic processing, controlled thinking requires

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motivation and effort.

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Benedict Spinozo asserted that when

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people initially see, hear or learn something they take it at face value and assume it is true.

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Gilbert confirmed Bendict Spinozos assertion reiterating that everything people

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see and hear is believed in the first instance and only evaluated after the fact.

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Gilbert's theory of automatic processing suggests the following three steps:

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1. automatic acceptance of information (automatic)
2. assess truthfulness of accepted beliefs (controlled)
3. unaccept if necessary (controlled)

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An increase in cognitive load reduces the ability to engage in

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controlled processing of information

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Acceptance of information operates unchecked when people are

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tired or unmotivated.

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Macrae, Bodenhausen, Mile and Ford (1997) found that when we attempt to suppress an unwanted thought they tend to reappear with even great insistence. This is known as the

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rebound effect

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The rebound effect has serious implication for court for example...

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when the jury is asked to disregard evidence it may strengthen its effects during deliberation.

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There are 3 major problems in testing for the existence of schemas, these are:

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1. The validity and reliability of measures
2. Limits of schemas are not clear
3. Individuality of schemas is hard to investigate.

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Overestimating the degree of correlation or seeing a orrelation where none exists is known as

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illusory correlation

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Illusory correlation in which items are seen as belonging together because they 'ought' to on the basis of prior expectations is known as

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Associative meaning.

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Illusory correlation in which items are seen as belonging together because they share some unusual feature is know as

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Paired distinctiveness

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The two stages of the global model of thinking are:

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1. spontaneous (automatic, procedural) and
2. deliberative (controlled, declarative)

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What are the 4 processes involved with spontaneous stage of the global model of thinking?

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1. Categorisation - stereotype/schema
2. Biased assumptions - typical + or - characteristics
3. Biased emotions - + or - reactions based on typicality
4. Biased treatment - subsequent behaviour

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What are the 4 processes involved with the deliberative stage of the global model of thinking?

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1. Gather more information
2. Re-categorise
3. Avoid guilt - if adjustment is insufficient deliberate more
4. Suppress Reactions - deliberately avoid displaying initial -ve reactions

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What are the 4 main heuristics?

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1. Representativeness
2. Availability
3. Anchoring and Adjustment
4. Simulation

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A cognitive shortcut in which instances are assigned to categories or types on the basis of overall similarity or resemblance to the category is known as the

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Representativeness Heuristic

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A cognitive shortcut in which the frequency or likelihood of an event is based on how quickly instances or associations come to mind is known as the

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Availability Heuristic

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A cognitive shortcut in which inferences are tied to initial standards or schemas is known as the

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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

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Social inference is the process

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of used to identify, sample & combine info to form impressions and make judgements.

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According to social inference deductive inferences are ___-driven, ___-_____ driven processes that are _______ and indictive inferences are ____-driven, ___-____ driven processes that are _______.

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schema; top-down; automatic;
data; bottom-up; controlled.

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The more salient behaviours/characteristics are noticed, they dominate our ______ and lead to more coherent _____ and extreme dispositional evaluations.

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perceptions;
organised;

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What are the 6 factors that affect the accuracy of social inference?

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1. Salience
2. Vividness
3. Accessibility
4. Ignoring base rates
5. Covariation
6. Illusory correlations

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Vivid stimulus are ones that are:

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1. Emotionally interesting
2. Concrete and image provoking
3. Close to you in time and space

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An intrinsic property of a stimulus on its own that makes it stand out and attract attention is

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Vividness

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The activation of accessible categories or schemas in memory that influence how we process new information is known as ______ and is what precipitates the ________ heuristic.

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Priming;
Accessibility.

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Palid, factual statistical information about an entire class of events is known as

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Base Rate Information

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Base rate information is often _____ due to _____ or _____ of an event which leads to ______ in inferences.

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overestimated;
vividness or salience;
errors.

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Judgements of covariation are judgments of

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how strongly two things are related.

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Mental short-cuts or rules of thumb that help reduce complex judgements to a set of simpler operations is called a

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Heuristic

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According to Tversky & Kahnmen heuristics can be efficient and powerful but

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may lead to systematic biases or misperceptions.

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Simulation heuristics are judgements based on

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mental simulations of risky judgements and consequences.

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Simulation heuristics can lead to ______ in our beliefs about how things must have happened.

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overconfidence

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Hindsight bias is the

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exaggerated belief that we knew all along what was going to happen.

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Counterfactual thinking is

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thinking about how things may have turned out.