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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gender Composition of the Workplace
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% of both women & men entering the labor force increased
Women’s rate of increase far outpaced men’s labor force participation rate |
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What are some consequences of changes in workforce gender composition?
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Women face persistent discrimination
based on gender Women are paid less Promoted less Assigned to specific jobs despite their qualifications May feel like outsiders w/in the workplace |
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Gender Ideology
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"Gender ideology refers to attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society."
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EMOTIONAL LABOR
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face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with other people external to or within the organization- especially in terms of service work jobs
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Gendered division of emotional labor
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Workplace has been a masculine arena
Men are breadwinners & providers Site of homosocial reproduction Workplace does not=happiness for men What is the role of women in all male workplaces? Arlie Hochschild The Managed Heart- 1983 Women participate in emotion work |
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Sex Segregation
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In terms of promotion, discrimination against
Women results from two barriers Glass ceiling and sticky floor |
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Income Discrimination Trends
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The Wage Gap
Connection btw gender ideology, sex segregation, and Income Discrimination Income inequality remains invisible- Paying different genders differently for doing roughly the same jobs with the same skill level Salary Assignment Social Work Attorneys Physicians Teachers Wage Gap vary btw men & women? Varies w/ level of education Age & Work Experience differences More complex by race and educational level Governmental Policies to Remedy Pay Inequity Equal Pay Act 1963 prohibits wage disparity between men and women who work in the same place and perform jobs that require the same skill, effort, and responsibility |
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The Glass Ceiling
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Keeps women from being promoted equally w/ men
Corporate management fails to establish policies & practices that promote diversity Limited family-friendly policies Informal mechanisms reinforce all male work environment (Old Boys Network) |
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Define Tokenism
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people who are admitted into an organization but who are recognizably different from the large majority of the members of the organization.
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The Glass Escalator concept
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men in a female job face invisible pressures to move up in the profession
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What occupations are discussed the article?
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Nurse, Elementary teacher,librarians, social worker
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How are the men in these female dominated careers viewed in terms of their masculinity?
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Gay, pedophiles, wimps, passive
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What happens to male tokens in female dominated jobs?
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The effects of sexism can outweigh
Perceived as an advantage to hiring and promotions |
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Provide examples of legal, informal and cultural discrimination
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They all contribute to women’s underrepresentation in male dominated occupations
LEGAL: prohibiting the hiring and promotion of women into certain job specialties INFORMAL: sexual harassment and sabotage. Mostly done by male coworkers thus resulting in a poisoned work environment CULTURAL: stigmatized by clients when their work puts them in public contact, they are viewed as incompetent and thus undermine their work performance |
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The relationship between men in non-traditional jobs and their supervisors
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Close bond
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How do women respond to men who enter their professions?
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Some are supportive others show ambivalence
As a whole, women are eager to see men enter “their” occupations However, women often resent the ease with which men advance within these professions, sending that men at high levels receive preferential treatment, which closes off advancement opportunities for women |
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How was the FDNYphysical exam different for men and women?
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2 exams, physical and written
-many women failed the physical test -women could fit into tighter spaces, keep O2 tank longer -in 1982 women asked to do more than men -When 90 women (of the 400 women eligible to take it) showed up to take the physical abilities part of that entrance test, all of them failed. FDNY unveiled a new firefighter entrance exam, one the New York City Assistant Personnel Director described as the “most arduous test we have ever given to anyone.” When 90 women (of the 400 women eligible to take it) showed up to take the physical abilities part of that entrance test, all of them failed. |
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Why did Brenda Berkman sue for discrimination?
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Test does not test real skills
-grab and pull -speed and strength -carry a dummy over shoulder out of a fire while timed -(this was not typical, its really about stamina, and normally people are dragged) |
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What was the testimony of the expert witness in the Berkman Trial?
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Dr. William McArdle – professor of exercise physiology and an expert witness in the Berkman lawsuit.
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What was the original ruling in Berkman vs New York City?
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The District Court for the Eastern District of New York ruled that the City discriminated against women through its physical exam, which included tests that were biased against women and unrelated to the position.
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Once women entered the fire dept how were they treated?
Examples- behaviors of male firefighters to the women, how were they treated, how did the culture of the firehouse change? |
Hazed and Harassed, air let out of tanks, tear gas, crabs in boots, beat up at company picnic (Lorraine o)
Raper, death threats, |
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What organizations supported the female firefighters?
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Vulcan Society (African American fire society)
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What happened with the two most highly promoted women in the fire dept?
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-Brenda and Zada Gonzalez fired, reevaluation even though they were rated top 3 in physical abilities
-reinstated to new fire houses |
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How many female firefighters hired between 1983-2002?
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8
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How many female firefighters hired between 2001-2011?
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11
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What changes were made to the physical exam and how were the candidates evaluated?
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in response to appeal 1987
-speed rather than stamina |
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How did the NYFD handle the women's harassment claims?
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-wouldn't handle harassment cases to full extent
-difficult to bring cases forward -no real punishments, man suspended, week later they were back |
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What were the various paths of Brenda Berkmans career?
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firefighter, became a captain, and was before a lawyer
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What was the role of women firefighters during the 9/11 tragedy?
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Women did offer service, they were heroes, but since no women lost their lives fighting people disregard their service
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Adonis Complex
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the belief that men must look like Greek gods, with perfect chins, thick hair, rippling muscles, and washboard abdominals
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Muscle Dysmorphia
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a belief that one is too small and not muscular enough.
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Eating Disorders- patterns for women
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- Current standards of beauty: dramatic thinness, muscularity, buxomness.
- Anorexia: chronic, dangerous starvation dieting and obsessive exercise - Bulimia: “binging and purging” - Rates of anorexia and bulimia are high in the U.S. [5-10% of post pubescent girls and women] - 3rd most common chronic illness among adolescents - ½ of U.S. girls between 11 and 13 view themselves as overweight. |
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Eating Disorders- patterns for men
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- >1million men
- 10% of those diagnosed with an eating disorder and seek help are MALE - More prevalent among homosexual men though prominent among heterosexual men - 1994 study Cornell football players= 40%- dysfunctional eating patterns, 10%- diagnosed eating disorders - 10 means of controlling weight: exercise - 20 means of controlling weight: fasting/dieting - <10% use vomiting, laxatives, or diuretics |
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Beauty Myth
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a nearly unreachable cultural ideal of feminine beauty that “uses images of female beauty as a political weapon against women’s advancement”.
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Iron Maiden
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created by the beauty myth, entraps women in an endless cycle of cosmetics, beauty aids, diets and exercise fanaticism. It makes women’s bodies “prisons”. Women become concerned with breast size and weight.
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Cult of Thinness
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Eating Disorders
1 in 5 young women in the US has an eating disorder Increasing numbers of men are exhibiting eating disorders Male college athletes are symptomatic Eating has become a moral issue Words such as guilt and sin are often used to sell food Reinforces a culture of dieting that affects women and young girls Commercials for weight loss programs often refer to good versus bad foods |
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Images of Men in Advertisements- What types of messages are men receiving?
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masculinity means muscularity, animal
Popular Cover lines on Men’s Health Magazine Six Pack Abs Lose your gut Get Back in Shape Flat belly foods |
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How do gender roles in advertising affect gender stereotypes?
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(1.) Relative Size
→ Males shown taller than females to display a relationship in which a male has power. Tall females with short males display a relationship in which the female has power A taller male is preferred because our society idealizes that men should “wear the pants” Exceptions: male is weakened by sickness or old age/ lower social status (servant) (2.) Functional Ranking →Male carries out senior functions and female junior functions Men act and women help men act Males are more likely to be shown in the executive or leadership role Females are in the supportive, assistant, or decorative accessory role. (3.) Feminine Touch →Women presented as desirable commodities-objects for pleasure Tracing outlines of objects, cradling them, caressing their surface Soft, delicate, caressing touch conveys that the product being caressed is precious & desirable (4.) Ritualization of Subordination → ON THE FLOOR/BED: showing subserviencey paired with body language (expressions of the lips, eyes, positioning of the hands and limbs) can be used to show social identity as a play-thing for males, available for the male gaze and male pleasure THE KISS: leaning back, submitting to male advance. Males initiate the encounter, females passively welcome the attention. Shows sex as about male aggression and female submission. WOMEN AS CHILDREN: childlike role, sitting on a male’s knee, being shielded and protected by the male. Females being lifted up in the air just as adults toss little children. Putting their finger in their mouth, standing pigeon-toed, wearing little girl clothes, sucking on lollipops. (5.) Licensed Withdrawal → Disempowered by being displayed as withdrawn from active participation in social scene and thus dependent on other. Involvement with some inner emotional processing (anxiety, ecstasy, introspection) can be symbolized by turning the face away, looking dreamy and introverted, covering the face with the hands (mouth) Removed from internal involvements, overcome with emotion, or symbolically silences with hand over the mouth. They become things for other to gaze at and desire |
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What types of messages do women and men receive from advertisements?
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Examines the gender portrayal of the population through print media
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Objectification
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Women as Objects
- video games - beer/alcohol - it affects female self-esteem and creates a widespread in which there is violence against women - turning a human being into a thing is almost always the 1st step toward justifying violence against that person - the person is dehumanized, so violence becomes inevitable |
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Dismemberment
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Women as subject and object
- women’s bodies are dismembered in ads: hacked apart or just one part of the body is focused on - dismemberment is the most dehumanizing thing you can do to someone - usually focuses on breasts since we are a culture obsessed with breasts and breasts are used to sell everything - ie. fishing lines, cameras, new bras, cosmetic surgery |
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Obsession with Thinness
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- the ads show that thinness is attractive but there is no way to achieve this thinness so they will ultimately fail;
- girls 8-10 feel fine about themselves till they hit adolescence - this is because there is a great emphasis on physical perfection - women are acceptable only if they are young, thin, white, or atleast light skinned, perfectly groomed and polished, plucked, shaved, and any deviation from this is met with hostility - the only body that we see as “acceptable” or “desirable” is the one that fewer then 5% of American women have - women are bombarded with ads for products that promise weight loss |
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Silencing of women
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Cutting girls down in size also means silencing them
Girls are pictured in ads with their hands over their mouths or their mouths covered somehow Body language is usually passive and vulnerable |
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The trivialization of power
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Men are afforded ability and strength, even as children
Women are put in silly poses Through sex with women in subordinate position Images that used to belong to the porn industry are now used in fashion |
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The sexualization of teenagers
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Boys will care how they look in jeans
Girls should disappear Cutting girls down to size Girls are taught to be a size nothing To be sexy is to be a little girl Grown women are infantilized through ads, pop culture, and fashion Grown women acting and dressing as children Heads are bigger than their bodies, big doe eyes Padded brags and thongs for 9 year olds Sex and sexuality are only for the young and beautiful girls are encouraged to be like porn stars and strippers encouraged to see themselves are porn stars because society rewards them girls exposed to sexualized images at a young age are more prone to: depression and depressed mood, eating disorder & low self esteem |
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Violence against women
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- - Men’s violence against women result from: entitlement thwarted
men and masculinity are linked with violence - boys grow up in a world in which men are constantly show as perpetrators of violence as brutal - they are encouraged to be insensitive and tough - talking and communicating is a sign of weakness for men - feminine side of things devalued, so women begin to devalue themselves and others and causes men to devalue women and all the qualities the culture defines as feminine [compassion, cooperation, empathy, intuition, sensitivity]. Men are taught to repress these qualities - when you have this kind of definition of femininity[passive-submissive definition]and this kind of brutal masculinity , this leads to violence - ads eroticize violence, making it seem like a romance will occur - violent images make people seem more aggressive and desensitize everyone and make people more likely to blame the victim - the most dangerous thing to do is to eroticize violence, because when you link sex with violence it promotes danger - battery is the greatest single cause to injury in women in America - 1/3 of women who are murdered in America are killed by their male partners, their husbands - most men are not violent but many men fear to speak out against violence |
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Relationship between masculinity and violence
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- Men constitute: 99% of all persons arrested for rape
79% for aggravated assault 75% of other assaults 75% of family violence 74% of disorderly conduct - 90% of murder victims are killed by MEN - From early childhood to old age, violence is the most unyielding, intractable behavior gender difference - Testosterone does NOT cause aggression, rather facilitates aggression that is already present - Violence increases testosterone levels; hormonal increases cause violence - Male violence is a way to prove successful masculinity - Violence is an adaptive strategy for males to not become victims - Violence is a form of masculine emotional expressiveness - In societies where men were permitted to acknowledge fear, levels of violence were low - Societies in which masculine bravado was a defining feature, levels of violence were high - ** MOST SIGNIFICANT CAUSE OF MALE VIOLENCE IS GENDER INEQUALITY** - Men’s violence against women result from: entitlement thwarted - Men’s violence against other men result from: thwarted sense of entitlement |
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Masculine bravado
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the posture of strength and the repression and denial of fear
- Societies in which bravado is prescribed for men are those in which the definition of masculinity & femininity are very highly differentiated. - Societies in which gender inequality is highest are those where masculinity and femininity are seen to be polar opposites thus they are societies that mandate “masculine bravado” |
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Gender & Crime
Liberal Feminist Theory of Crime- Adler & Simon |
- Liberal Feminist Theory of Crime- Freda Adler and Rita Simon
-Feminism decreased the rates of female violent crimes because women were less subject to direct male control nut that feminism increased the rates of property crimes |
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Steffensmeier’s research
Crime is a function of economic inequality |
-Gender-based crime rate differences remain significant
-The emancipation of women has little influence on crime rates |
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Gilligan’s research
Female Gender Code, |
Stimulates male violence; inhibits female violence
Restricts women to the role of sex objects Encourages women to treat men as violent objects Encourages men to be violent if the women dishonor them |
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Gender and Violent Crime Trends
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-Violent crimes rise from an unusually high proportion of the population of young men between 15 and 24
-Gender and age are the 2 most powerful predictors of violence -Men are more violent than women -Likelihood of violence by either gender decreases as age increases -Young American men are the most violent group of people in the industrialized world -9/10 male murder victims are killed by other men -2005, men btw. 15 & 24 had a homicide rate of 37.2 per 100,000. -Btw. 1985 & 1994, # of homicides by 14-17 y/o males tripled -1971, prison population was 200,000 now 1.5 million |
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Homicide Trend- Victim & Offender Patterns
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-Most victims and perpetrators in homicides are male (2011 Statistics)
Male offender/Male victim 67.8% Male offender/Female victim 21.0% Female offender/Male victim 9.0% Female offender/Female victim 2.2% •According to Bureau of Justice Statistics Estimates for 1976-2011 –Women are at risk for intimate killings (63.7%), and Sex related homicides (81.7%) - Men are involved in drug (90.5%) and gang-related homicide (94.6%) - Among Homicide offenders, Women are more likely to commit murder as a result of an argument or murder by poison |
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Women and Violent Crime- Types of Crimes women commit
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-Women commit the majority of: child homicides in the U.S.
physical child abuse sibling violence assaults on the elderly child sexual abuse killings of newborns spousal assault. -Women’s criminality has decreased since the 18th century. -Steady decline in women’s arrests and prosecutions since the 18th century because of changes in the definition of femininity and the “cult of domesticity” which made women angels of their households -Violent crimes by women have decreased. - Most prevalent form of violent crime: murder 2/3 killing a relative, intimate, or someone else they knew - More women kill their husbands than men kill their wives - Female homicide rate has decreased because of the expansion of services for battered women, so that now women whose intimate partner batters and/or rapes them have alternatives that support their leaving the relationship - Women’s violence tends to be defensive - Women’s violence is the outcome of feelings trapped |
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Marital Rape- statistics
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Marital /Spousal Rape
Does “I do” mean “I will all the time”? 14 to 25% of women are forced by their husbands to sexual intercourse against their will during the course of marriage 1993 Marital/Spousal rape became a crime in all 50 states |
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Sexual Symmetry of Violence Perspective
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Sexual symmetry in marital violence
husbands & wives are similarly victimized examined self-reports of violent acts & homicide rates |
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Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS)
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1985 survey
3,250 husband-wife households interviewed either husband or wife (not both) -CTS Results Battered Husbands Violent Couples Weapons equalize opportunities to engage in violence Sexual Symmetry occurs in perpetration & initiation of violence Wives do not necessarily act in self-defense |
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Problems with CTS
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Reliability issues
Couples self-reporting of behavior Issues concerning question wording Severity of Violence Need a theory of sexual symmetry in marital violence |
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Scully’s research on the sociological perspective of rape
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Study of Convicted Rapists
Rape is viewed as a crime of power Rapists had higher levels of consensual sex than other men Rapists are more likely to have significant relationships w/ women Rapists are more likely to be fathers -From her interviews: Rapists indicated they put women in their place Rapists indicated women have no right to say no Scully concludes Men rape because they have learned in this culture sexual violence is rewarding They also never thought they would be punished for what they did |
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Gilligan’s research
Culture of Honor |
Explains the Social & Cultural Origins of Violence for Men
Violence is linked to feelings of shame & inferiority |
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Gilligan’s research
Male Gender Code Relationship between Culture of Honor and Violence |
Teaches boys and men a code of honor
Code of honor requires men to inflict physical violence on both sexes Exposes men to shame if they are not violent Rewards men with honor if they are violent |
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Sanday’s research on predictors of rape-prone and rape free campus cultures
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Best Predictors of Rape-Proneness
Levels of militarism Interpersonal violence Ideologies of male toughness Distant Father-Child Relationships The lower the status of women relative to men; the higher the rape rate -Sanday studied sexual ideologies from a cross-cultural perspective Rape-prone behavior Associated w/ environmental security Females turned into objects to be controlled Sexual violence a way men remind themselves they are superior Characteristics of rape-prone behavior The role of alcohol -Rape free society The ceremonial importance of women Women are respected Sexual equity Sexes are viewed as complementary Sanday’s research on QRS fraternity |
