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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal tidal volume expiration? |
The functional residual capacity |
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What is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration? |
Residual volume |
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What is maximum amount of air contained in the lungs after a maximum inspiratory effector? |
The Total lung capacity |
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The maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration is the? |
Inspiratory capacity |
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The amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions is the? |
Tidal volume |
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The amount of air that can forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal inspiration is the? |
Inspiratory reserve volume |
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The maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort is? |
The vital capacity |
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Cessation of breathing is known as? |
Apnea |
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What does the pleural membrane surround? |
It completely surrounds each lung |
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Contraction of the external intercostals do what? |
Expands the thoracic cavity |
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Where does the upper respiratory tract start and end? |
Starts at the nose, and ends at the larynx |
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Which gas is the highest concentration in the air we breath? |
Nitrogen |
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Boyle's law: when a volume of a gas increases, the number of molecules that collide with the walls of the container..? |
Decreases |
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Increased CO2 in the blood leads too..? |
Decreased pH of the Cerebral spinal fluid which is the primary regulator of breathing |
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The tendency of the lungs to return to their initial size after stretching is called? |
Elasticity |
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The term for the deficiency of oxygen or the inability to utilise oxygen in tissue? |
Hypoxia |
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Where is the hilus of the lung located? |
On the lungs mediastinum surface |
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An increase in intra-pleural pressure would cause a ------ in alveolar volume? |
Decrease |
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What does the diaphragm separate? |
The abdominal and thoracic cavities |
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What would happen to the pressure in the alveoli if the volume increased? |
The pressure would decrease |
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What does the pleurae, and pleural fluid do for the immune system? |
Prevents the spread of pulmonary infection to pericardium |
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What is the name of the structure that is composed of two or more tissue types that work together to perform a specific function for the body? |
Organ |
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Shivering in response to a drop in a body temperature is what type of mechanism? |
A homeostatic/ negative feedback mechanism |
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What happens to the effector in a positive feedback mechanism? |
The positive feedback mechanism is increased |
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What are the regulators of effectors in most feedback loops? |
Hormones and nerves |
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What is transcription? |
RNA synthesis from a DNA template |
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Why do muscle cells contain many mitochondria? |
Because of their high demand for ATP |
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What is the purpose of the plasma membrane? |
Create a boundary between the cellular contents and the environment external to the cell |
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If an incision has to be made in the small intestines to remove an obstruction, what is the first layer of tissue to be cut? |
Serosa |
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What is the function of the hepatic portal circulation? |
To collect absorbed nutrients for metabolic processing or storage. |
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What are the 3 phases of gastric secretion? CGI |
Cephalic, gastric, and intestinal |
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What is the function of the trypsin enzyme? |
Protein digestion |
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What is lipase described as? |
Catalyses the breakdown of triglycerides into mono-glycerides and free fatty acids |
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What is the most potent inhibitor (directly or indirectly) of gastric motility and emptying? |
Fat in the duodenum |
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What is the function of the stomach? |
Storing ingested food and partially digesting macromolecules |
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What kind of epithelium appears to have 2 or 3 layers of cells, and all cells are in contact with the basement membrane? |
Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium |
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Where is the basement membrane found? |
It is found between the epithelium and connective tissue |
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How are various types of epithelium classified? |
Epithelium is classified by the shape of cells and the number of layers |
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What epithelium makes up the walls of capillaries if they are to supply body cells with oxygen and nutrients? |
Simple squamous epithelium |
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What is the hierarchy of complexity? |
Molecules composed of atoms--organelles composed of molecules--cells composed of organelles--Tissues composed of cells--organs composed of tissues--organ systems composed or organs--organisms composed of organ systems |
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Name the major body cavities? |
Cranial and vertebral cavity (dorsal body cavity), Superior mediastinum (above the heart), thoracic cavity (pleural cavities around the lungs), pericardial cavity, abdominal cavity, and pelvic cavity. (ventral body cavity- thoracic and and abdominal and pelvic) |
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Define homeostasis? |
The ability of the body to stay within the narrow limits of change To detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions. Constantly in a state of dynamic equilibrium |
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How is homeostasis regulated? |
Via the nervous system (electrical), and endocrine (chemical) |
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Components of homeostasis imbalance? |
1- stimulus, 2 receptor, 3 input (afferent), 4 CC, 5 output (efferent), 6 response (effector) |
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Explain the positive feedback mechanism of blood clotting? |
1. a break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall, 2. platelets adhere to site and release chemicals, 3. released chemicals attract more platelets, 4. platelets plug is fully formed, (feedback cycle ends when plug is formed) |
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Why may homeostasis function reduce with age? |
Diseases can disrupt homeostasis, ageing, stability, maintenance decreases and may worsen. |
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What is digestion? |
Food that is chemically or physically digested into smaller pieces (nutrients) and ultimately absorbed across the wall of the digestive tract. |
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What are the organs that make up the gastrointestinal tract? |
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines and large intestines |
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What are the organs that make up the accessory structures? |
Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas |
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List the 6 processes of digestion |
Ingestion, propulsion, digestion (mechanical, chemical), absorption and defecation. |
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Differentiate between peristalsis and segmentation. |
Peristalsis: downward movement of food. Wave-like muscle contractions that moves food to different processing stations in the digestive tract. The process of peristalsis begins in the oesophagus when a bolus of food is swallowed. Segmentation: small intestines. Motility: regulated by muscles and cells: controlled by nervous system (degree of stretch receptors and food, with hormonal control) |
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What are the 4 layers of the gastrointestinal tract? |
1. mucosa (inner most layer, closest to the food), 2. submucosa, 3. Muscularis, 4. Serosa |
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What are the layers of the mucosa? |
1. Lining epithelium, 2. Lamina propria, 3. muscularis mucosae |
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What epithelium makes up the majority of the GI tract? |
Simple columnar: for great protection against chemicals. There are goblet cells: which secrete mucus/ |
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What type of epithelia is found in the mouth, anus and vagina? |
Stratified squamous: layered where abrasions are experienced. |
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What is the lamina propria? (2nd layer of the mucosa) |
Lamina propria: is the connective tissue, capillaries, which supply and absorb nutrients. Also secretes little amount of mucus
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What is the muscularis mucosae? (3rd layer of mucosa) |
Smooth muscle layer, involuntary. Produces small local movements |
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What processes occurs in the oral cavity (mouth)? |
Ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion and chewing. |
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Describe chewing (mastication, 4). |
1: mechanically digests food. 2: mix food with saliva, lubricates and initiates carbohydrate digestion (amylase). 3. form food bolus so the food can be swallowed easier. 4. triggers the cephalic phase of digestion, and tells the brain you are eating. It makes sure the stomach is ready for food and the secretions are activated. |
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What are the functions of the tongue and tongue muscles? |
Gripping and repositioning food, mixing food, and initiates swallowing and speech. Intrinsic muscles change the shapes of the tongue, extrinsic muscles position the tongue |
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Functions of the hard and soft palate? |
Hard palate: assists in chewing Soft palate: close off the nasopharynx during swallowing. |
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Name the 3 salivary glands. |
-parotid -sublingual -submandibular |
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What are some enzymes found in the saliva? |
Salivary amylase and lingual lipase |
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What makes up saliva? |
Saliva is made up of 99.5% H20 plus. Electrolytes, digestive enzymes and proteins. |
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What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic salivary glands? |
Intrinsic glands keep the mouth moist Extrinsic salivary glands secrete saliva in response to ingested food, an the thought of food |
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What is the function of the pharynx? |
Allows passage of foods and fluids to oesophagus. Allows air to the trachea. The lining is stratified squamous epithelium to avoid abrasion. |
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What are some characteristics of the oesophagus? |
It is a muscular tube. Move food from mouth to stomach. The epithelial lining changes. Upper 1/3 lined by voluntary striated muscles. Lower 2/3 by smooth involuntary muscle. It goes down the mediastinum and pierces the stomach and joins at the cardiac orifice. Moves bolus from mouth to stomach. |
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What are the phases of deglutition? |
Preparatory phase: bolus formation and lubrication during mastication Oral phase: bolus propelled into the pharynx Voluntary or Buccal stage: tongue rises and presses against the hard palate. Epiglottis is "open" Pharyngeal stage: involuntary passage of bolus into oesophagus. Uvula and larynx rise to prevent food from entering respiratory pathway and the epiglottis covers the trachea Oesophageal stage: involuntary passage of bolus through oesophagus into stomach |
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Summaries ingestion. (first process that occurs in the GI tract) |
1. food is ingested 2. chewing: mechanical digestion begins 3. salivary amylase begins chemical breakdown of starch 4. swallowing (deglutition) initiates propulsion of bolus 5. the pharynx and oesophagus serve as conduits to pass food from mouth to stomach |
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What are the functions of the stomach? |
Temporary storage tank for food. Mechanical and chemical digestion (hydrochloric acid) takes place. Converts food to chyme. It secretes the intrinsic factor which absorbs vitamin b12 and folate. |
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Describe the internal anatomy of the stomach. |
3 layer so smooth muscle: longitudinal, circular and oblique. The smooth muscle churns and mixes chyme effectively. The internal surface (ruage) which has many folds allows for the expansion of the stomach and helps to maintain its shape |
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What 4 cells are present (microscopically) in the stomach? |
1: Mucus neck cell: replace those that are shed into the lumen. Often get replaced because the pH is 2 2: parietal cells: produce HCI and intrinsic factor. Kill bacteria, denature proteins and digest meat effectively. Low pH activates other enzymes 3: chief cells: produce pepsinogen. pre-curser to the enzyme pepsin. Breaks down protein. 4: entero-endocrine cells: release a number of chemical messengers: gastrin hormone somatastain. Help to increase contractions of the stomach, somatostain does the opposite, inhibits gastric secretion and motility. |
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What are some neural regulators of digestion? |
Mechanical and chemical: stretch receptors Mechanoreceptors: stretch or tension in gut wall Osmoreceptors: change in osmotic composition of the lumen fluid. Chemoreceptors: chemical composition changes in food intrinsic: short reflexes: local gut brain: secretion, peristalsis, mixing and contraction extrinsic: long reflexes outside the GI tract |
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What are some of the reflex in the digestive system? |
- gastroileal reflex: -ileogastric reflex: distension of the lumen. Inhibits gastric motility -intestino-intestinal reflex: relaxation, but tension in one spot -pain reflexes: general inhibition fo GI tract -defecation reflexes: |
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What are the 3 steps of the release of gastric juice? |
1: cephalic (reflex phase): prior to food entering: thought, sight, smell. Stimulates nerve CNS, and stimulates gastric secretion and motility. 2: gastric phase: 3-4 hours after food enters stomach, distension of the stomach, stretch receptors under neural and hormonal control 3: intestinal phase: brief stimulatory. Effect as partially digested food enters the duodenum. Under neural and hormonal control. lil bits |
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Which is the fastest to be digested and absorbed- glucose or fats? |
Glucose is easier: simple fats: more complex molecule and need an extra breakdown so the molecule are small and simple enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Fats cause the release of CCK and GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide) |
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What is the function of the 3 parts of the small intestines? |
Duodenum: ultimate destruction of food digestion reaches it completion and where the acidity of chyme is nullified, so enzymes can function Jejunum: absorbs amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol Ilium: extorting every particle of nutrient. Reclaim bile salts. |
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What are 5 functions of the liver? |
-synthesis and storage of A.A., proteins, vitamins and fats -detoxification -blood circulation and filtration -bile drainage -blood glucose regulation |
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What is the purpose of the gall bladder? |
Alkaline solution: bile salts, pigments, phospholipids and electrolytes. They emulsify fats Breaks down chunks of fats, so the lipase can do its job, lipase cannot work without bile |
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What are the exocrine and endocrine functions of the pancreas? |
Exocrine: secretes alkaline pancreatic juice Endocrine: release of insulin and glucagon |
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Name all of the sections of the large intestines. |
Appendix, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum and anal canal |
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What functions take place in the small intestines? |
Just digestion of enteric bacteria, no further digestion takes place. Vitamins, water and electrolytes are reclaimed (absorbed) |
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What are the 2 sphincters in the rectum/anal canal? |
Internal involuntary smooth muscle External voluntary skeletal muscle. |
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Describe the process of defecation. |
Rectal walls distends stretch receptors send sensory nerve impulses to the sacral spinal cord motor impulses travel back to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum and anus longitudinal rectal muscles contract and the internal anal sphincter opens: if the external anal sphincter is voluntarily relaxed, defecation occurs and the faeces are expelled. |
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Describe the chemical digestion carbohydrates |
mouth- amylase- starch duodenum- amylase-maltose small and large intestines- maltose- glucose |
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Describe the chemical digestion of proteins |
stomach-pepsin-protein small intestines-trypsin-protease and peptide large intestines-dipeptides--amino acids |
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How does ageing effect the homeostatic imbalance of the digestive system? |
-Decreased secretory mechanisms and motility -loss of strength and tone of digestive muscular tissue -changes in neuro-secretory feedback -diminished response to pain and internal sensations |
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Where is the secretion cholecystokinin secreted by, and what is its function? |
Secreted by the duodenum. It releases digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. Inhibits gastric gland secretion and gastric motility; increases output of pancreatic juices; stimulates gallbladder to contract and release bile |
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Mucus is secreted by? |
Mucus is secreted by the mucus neck cells. The function protects the mucosa from HCI and enzymes |
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Hydrochloric acid is secreted by? |
Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells. Activated pepsin and lingual lipase; helps liquefy food; reduces dietary iron to usable form (Fe 2+); destroys ingested pathogens. |
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Where is gastrin secreted? |
Gastrin is secreted by the entero-endocrine cells. Function is to stimulate gastric glands to secrete HCI and enzymes, stimulates intestinal motility, relaxes illeoceal valve |
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Where is secretin secreted? |
Secretin is secreted by the duodenum. The function is to inhibit gastric secretion and gastric motility; increase output of pancreatic juice, increases bile output from the liver |
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Pepsinogen is secreted by? |
Pepsinogen is secreted by chief cells: its function is: a precursor to pepsin, which digests protein |
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Where is gastric lipase secreted? |
Gastric lipase is secreted by chief cells. Its function is to digest fat |
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Where is intrinsic factor secreted? |
Intrinsic factor is secreted by parietal cells. It enables the small intestines to absorb vitamin B12, and folate. |
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Where is somatostatin secreted? |
Somatostatin is secreted by the enteroendocrine cells: it inhibits gastric secretion and motility, delays emptying of stomach; inhibits secretion by pancreas, inhibits gallbladder contraction and bile secretion |
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Differentiate between the conducting zone, and respiratory zone. |
Conducting zone: conduits that joins the outside atmosphere to the respiratory zone. Transports air in and out Respiratory zone: where gas exchange occurs |
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What is the purpose of sinuses? |
Sinuses are spaces within the bone (skull), mucus covered. It lightens the skull, and moistens/warms incoming air |
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What happens when you swallow (respiratory system)? |
When you swallow the uvula moves superiorly to stop food/drink going into the nasal cavity. When the uvula relaxes, air comes in |
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What is nasopharynx's purpose? |
carry air only |
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What is the purpose of the oropharynx, and larngopharynx? |
Food and air passes through it. Soft palate to the tip of the epiglottis |
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How does the larynx produce noise? |
The larynx contains vocal folds, which produce sound when they vibrate. The tension vibrates and produces sound when air moves over them. |
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Where is the carina located? |
Carina: top of the bronchial branch before the first division. Can cause violent coughing to stop particles entering the lungs (alveoli) |
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What is the function of the smooth muscle in the trachea? |
Allows the trachea constrict, dilate, flex and extend the neck in many directions. The c shaped cartilage covered in smooth muscle allows the food bolus in the esophagus to increase in diameter, and the tracheal cartilage extends slightly to allow this to happen. |
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How many orders of branching air there in the bronchial tree? |
23 orders of branching in the conducting zone. The branches get smaller and smaller, as does the cartilage size. |
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What kind of network surround the alveolar sacs? |
Capillary network- gas exchange |
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What are the two types of alveoli cells? |
Type1: makes up the walls of the alveoli Type2: produces surfactant to reduce surface tension, allows alveoli to stay open and not stick together |
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How many lobes are on each side of the lung? |
3 lobes on the right side 2 lobes on the left side (need space for the heart) |
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What membrane are the lungs enclosed and protected by? |
The lungs are enclosed and protected by the pleural membrane. Visceral membrane is in contact with the organs. Parietal pleura: membrane attached to thoracic wall space Pleural cavity: contains fluid. This minimises fluid via lubrication |
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What kind of epithelium is found in the pharynx? |
Epithelia is stratified sqamous. |
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What kind of epithelium is found where gas exchange takes place? |
Simple squamous epithelium performs gas exchange |
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What is ventilation? |
Ventilation: is air moving into and out of the lungs. It is a mechanical process: lung volume changes- pressure changes--flow of gas goes down a pressure gradient |
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What is Boyle's law? |
Pressure changes that drive inhalation and exhalation are governed, in part, by Boyle's law - the volume of gas caries inversely with its pressure |
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What does the diaphragm divide? |
The diaphragm divides the abdominal caivty |
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What factors affect pulmonary ventilation? |
-Surface tension -elastic recoil -compliance |
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What is surface tension? |
Inwardly directed force in the alveoli which must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inspiration (role of surfactant) |
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What is elastic recoil? |
Decreases the size of the alveoli during expiration |
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What is compliance (pulmonary ventilation)? |
Ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can be expanded |
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What is spirometry? |
It is a pulmonary function test. Spirometry measures the amount and rate of air a person breathes in order to diagnose illness or determine progress in treatment. |
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What is Dalton's law? |
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present |
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What is Henry's law? |
The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of a gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remains constant. |
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What is perfusion? |
Blood flow in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli |
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What are the factors affecting the affinity of Hb for O2? |
PO2, pH, temperature and type of Hb. Affinity is the ability for haemoglobin to hold onto oxygen. It can either hold on tight, or release it |
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What are the 3 ways CO2 can be transported? |
7-10% is dissolved in plasma 23% can bind to haemoglobin, different spots then oxygen. binds to the globin 70% as a bicarbonate ion. |
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What does the dorsal respiratory group do? |
Sets the rhythm of breathing |
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Is respiration more dependent on Co2 of O2? |
More dependent on CO2. Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals. |
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What effect does ageing have on the respiratory system? |
decreased: -vital capacity -blood oxygen level -alveolar macrophage activity -ciliary action of respiratory epithelia Elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema etc |
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What is pneumothorax? |
Refers to the condition where space between the wall of the chest cavity and the lung fills with air, causing all or a portion of the lung to collapse. Air enters the space, called the pleural space, through an injury to the chest wall or a hole in the lung. This result is called pneumothorax which is the medical term for a collapsed lung |
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Which gas is the highest concentration in the air we breath? |
nitrogen |
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What is elasticity of the lungs? |
The tendency of the lungs to return to their initial size are stretching is called elasticity |
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What is the term for the deficiency of oxygen or in the inability to utilise oxygen in a tissue? |
Hypoxia |
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Where is the hilus of the lung? |
Located on its mediastinum surface |
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How many molecules of oxygen can haemoglobin carry? |
4 |
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What are the two neural controls of the respiratory centres? |
Medullary and Pontine. These centres have neural connections to muscles, internal and external intercostals and the diaphragm. |
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What are some examples of how ventilation is regulated? |
Chemoreceptors detecting change in CO2 levels. Lets the respiratory control centre know to increase ventilation and negative feedback homeostasis. |
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What is atmospheric pressure? |
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure outside of the body, which is at sea level |
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What is intrapulmonary pressure? |
Intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure inside of the lungs during inspiration and expiration |
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What is intra-pleural pressure? |
Intra-pleural pressure is the pressure within the pleural cavity. Pressure is slightly less than the atmospheric pressure in what is known as negative pressure |
