Vce Psychology Unit 2 Exam

Front 1

what is an attitude?

Back 1

an attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of an object, person,event or idea that can affect an individual’s behaviour

Front 2

what is prejudice?

Back 2

prejudice is an unfavourable or negative attitude towards a group ofpeople, based on insufficient or incorrect information to whom it is directed

Front 3

what is discrimination? what are common types of discrimination?

Back 3

discrimination is the action that expresses the attitude of prejudice. (sexism, racism and ageism)

Front 4

what is a stereotype?

Back 4

our natural human tendency to classify people into groups based on characteristics that we perceive them to have in common (the elderly are always so slow)

Front 5

what is a stigma?

Back 5

a group of individuals is perceived by others to possess qualities that are undesirable and is therefore rejected

Front 6

describe the tri-component model of attitudes using an example

Back 6

tri-component model consists of an affect component, how we feel aboutthe subject, behavioural component, how we act towards the subject andcognitive component, what we know about the subject. For example, I likeanimals, I will go to the zoo, I know animals are cute.

Front 7

what are some limitations of the

tri-component model?

Back 7

limitations of the tri-component model is that in some cases thebehavioural component is not consistent with the affect and cognitive componentwhich is sometimes due to respect

Front 8

observational studies (including strengths and limitations)

Back 8

collecting data by observing and recording behaviour as they occur

+ can examine behaviour in natural setting and is more valid

- difficult to find out the cause of the behaviour

Front 9

self-report (including strengths and limitations)

Back 9

participants read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference

+ quick and efficient to collect data

- people can lie

Front 10

questionnaires, surveys, interview (including strengths and limitations)

Back 10

collecting written (or spoken for interview) responses from participants

+ quick and efficient to collect

+ rich in detail (interview)

- people can lie

Front 11

rating scales (including strengths and limitations)

Back 11

quantifies qualitative data

+ statistics are provided

- responses are not in depth with detail

Front 12

how can attitudes be acquired through classical conditioning?

Back 12

attitudes are learned through association with stimuli (wanting to stop smoking because ads make you feel sad)

Front 13

how can attitudes be acquired through operant conditioning?

Back 13

repeating behaviour that is rewarded and avoiding behaviour that is punished (working well at work can get you promoted so you continue to work well)

Front 14

how can attitudes be acquired through modelling?

Back 14

learnt through observing from others who are important to them (a child of a smoker will most likely become a smoker as well)

Front 15

how can attitudes be acquired through repeated exposure?

Back 15

beginning at neutral and after repeated exposure, developing a good attitude (having the same emergency teacher and thinking positively of them)

Front 16

define 'group'

Back 16

a group is people who interact, influence each other and share a common goal

Front 17

reward power

Back 17

ability to give positive consequences in response to specific behaviour (an employer has the power to give a pay rise or promotion)

Front 18

coercive power

Back 18

ability to give negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response to specific behaviour (an employer can fire an employee)

Front 19

legitimate power

Back 19

an individual's status or position in a group, institution or society in general gives them the right to exercise power over those with lower status (prime minister)

Front 20

referent power

Back 20

individuals identify with or want to be like or be liked by this person (One Direction)

Front 21

expert power

Back 21

having special knowledge and skills that are desirable or needed (lawyer)

Front 22

informational power

Back 22

having resources or information that are useful and are not available elsewhere (a friend who has gossip to tell)

Front 23

intergroup contact

Back 23

prejudice can be reduced by increasing intergroup contact; that is, increasing direct contact

between two groups who are prejudiced against each other

Front 24

sustained contact

Back 24

Sustained contact involves ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period of time. Sustained contact is used to break down a stereotype that was substantially based on

minimal information obtained from other secondary sources.

Front 25

mutual interdependence

Back 25

if two rival groups who dislike and are prejudice against each other are placed in a contact

situation in which they are mutually interdependent - that is, dependent on each other - there is greater likelihood that the rivalry and negative stereotypes can be reduced.

Front 26

superordinate goals

Back 26

a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides other existing goals which each group might have. Super-ordinate goals can be used to reduce prejudice.

Front 27

equality of status

Back 27

when members of both groups perceive their own group and the other group as being equally important, they would be described as having an equality of status.

Front 28

cognitive interventions

Back 28

asking a prejudice person to consider prejudice from the victim's perspective or to have their negative stereotypes challenged or broken down.

Front 29

Milgram's Obedience Experiment

Back 29

To discover whether participants would obey an authority figure and carry out actions that cause severe pain to someone else. All 40 participants obeyed up to 300-volts and 26 participants

continued to 390-450 volts. It is concluded that people are very likely to perform actions contrary to their beliefs and wishes if they are instructed by an authority figure.

Front 30

describe the factors which influence obedience

Back 30

- social proximity (distance)

- legitimacy of the authoritative figure (if they have power)

- group pressure (little or no group support)

Front 31

Asch's Conformity Experiment

Back 31

To investigate the extent to which an individual within a group will conform with the majority opinion. the confederates answered incorrectly some of the time. About 75% of the participants agreed with the confederates incorrect responses at least once during the trials. It is concluded that participants conformed to feel belonged in the group and believed that the other members were more informed than they were.

Front 32

describe the factors which influence conformity

Back 32

- group size (increases up to four confederates)

- unanimity (difficult to be minority) informational influence (a need for direction when unsure)

- normative influence (to fit in)

- culture (individualist or collectivist)

- social loafing (less effort when in a group)

- deindividuation (anonymity)

Front 33

Zimbardo's Power Experiment

Back 33

To identify if individuals would undertake a certain role and change their behaviour because of that role. The guards conformed to their roles and the prisoners became dehumanized and distressed. The guards took their roles very seriously so the experiment had to be stopped. It was concluded that when individuals were given a role, their behaviour would change accordingly to suit the role that they were given.

Front 34

situational factors (prosocial behaviour)

Back 34

- whether we notice the situation

- if the situation is an emergency

- if there are many bystanders

- whether we are prepared to take responsibility

Front 35

social norms (pro-social behaivour)

Back 35

- reciprocity norm: “I helped you so you help me”

- social responsibility norm: we should help those who need help because it is our responsibility to do so.

Front 36

personal factors (pro-social behaviour)

Back 36

- our ability to emphasise

- the mood we are in when help is needed

- whether we feel competent to help

Front 37

diffusion of responsibility

Back 37

the more bystanders the less likely someone will help as they feel less responsible

Front 38

audience inhibition

Back 38

the presence of other bystanders can make a person feel self-conscious and embarrassed to help

Front 39

cost-benefit analysis

Back 39

weighing out the pros and cons of helping where if there is more cons they will not help

Front 40

deindividuation

Back 40

individuals are more likely to do antisocial behaviour in a group because they feel anonymous and less guilty

Front 41

what is altruism?

Back 41

the desire to benefit others for their own sake, without seeking personal gains or rewards.

Front 42

what is the bystander effect?

Back 42

antisocial behaviour is likely when there is many bystanders compared to little bystanders.

Front 43

what is social loafing?

Back 43

the tendency of an individual to make less effort when in a group activity than working alone.

Front 44

what is risk taking behaviour? (include the 4 different types)

Back 44

Risk taking behaviour has the potential to cause negative consequences,harm to physical health and harm to psychological well being.

thrill seeking: behaviour that is challenging but relatively socially acceptable. (sky diving)

reckless: thrill-seeking behaviour but have a higher chance of not being accepted by the adult population, and have negative social or health-related outcomes. (drinking and driving)

rebellious: experimenting with activities that are usually acceptable for adults but are generally disapproved of for adolescents. (smoking and cigarettes)

anti-social: considered unacceptable for both adults and adolescents. (cheating)

Front 45

what is peer pressure? (direct and indirect peer pressure)

Back 45

Peer pressure is social influence by peers; that is, real or imagined pressure to think feel or behave according to standards, or 'guidelines' that are determined by peers.

direct: one or more others telling you what to do

indirect: you act to conform to the group "sts_obs

Front 46

describe Bandura's social learning theory in relation to his Bo Bo Doll experiments

Back 46

Aggression learned from observing others as when the child saw that the adult was hitting the Bo Bo Doll, they then hit the Bo Bo Doll aswell.

Front 47

desribe personality

Back 47

Personality refers to a combination of long lasting and distinctivebehaviours, thoughts and emotions that typify how we adapt and react to otherpeople and situations.

Front 48

describe Allport's Trait Theory

Back 48

Cardinal: the driving force behind all a person's activities (selfless)

Central: major personality characteristics that are easily identified by others (independence)

Secondary: traits present in some situations but not in others (quiet at school, loud at home)

Front 49

describe Freud's Structure of the Mind

Back 49

Conscious: current thoughts, feelings and

behaviour (what you ate for lunch)

Preconscious: information that is easily

accessible (what you wore last Saturday night)

Unconscious: not readily accessible (losing a

close friend)

Front 50

describe Freud's Defence Mechanisms

Back 50

Defence mechanisms is the way in which ego defends itself against anxiety and unresolved internal conflicts.

- Rationalisation: convincing yourself with "almost believable" false excuses to justify your guilty actions (being on a diet and

going to McDonalds and telling yourself it's okay because it's "just this one time")

- Denial: refusing to believe the anxiety-provoking facts are true (an alcoholic lasting a day without a drink and saying "see, I can give it up".)

Front 51

describe Freud's Stages of Personality

Back 51

ID: operates with pleasure principle (impulsive)

EGO: operates with realistic principle (logical)

SUPEREGO: operates with moralistic principle (blocks out ID but persuades EGO to be more moralistic)

Front 52

describe Freud's Psychosexual Development

Back 52

1. Oral (0-2 years): can lead to nail biting/smoking

2. Anal (2-3 years): if too pleasurable can form anal fixation

3. Phallic (4-5 years): Oedipus - boy loves his

mother, Electra - girl loves her father

4. Latency (6-puberty): quiet and stable period

5. Genital (puberty-adulthood): growing need for mature and social relationships

Front 53

describe Roger's Humanistic Theory

Back 53

does not measure personality but is a counselling model

- True self: who you really are

- Ideal self: who you want to be

- Self-image: who you think you are

Front 54

summarise Allport's Theory's strengths and limitations

Back 54

+ easy to use

- does not address the development of traits

- does not recognise how to fix bad traits

Front 55

summarise Freud Theory's strengths and limitations

Back 55

- heterosexual bias

- lacks scientific research evidence

- based on ideas that are difficult to test using the scientific method

Front 56

summarise Roger's Theory's strengths and limitations

Back 56

- simplistic and vague ideas about personality

- unrealistic

- doesn't recognise human beings as being capable of evil

Front 57

define intelligence

Back 57

Intelligence is the ability to remember, comprehend, learn andproblem-solve and is a hypothetical construct, meaning it cannot be seen, butinstead we can use measures to make inferences about intelligence.

Front 58

what does IQ stand for? (include advantage and disadvantages)

Back 58

IQ stands for intelligence quotient.

+ identifies potential for academic achievement

- limited potential and stereotypes

Front 59

why must a professional administer an IQ test?

Back 59

A professional must administer a test as they have the knowledge to be able to score tests properly and compare scores to the norms compared to anon-professional who has a lack of knowledge and can incorrectly distribute scores and information.

Front 60

what is the interaction between nature vs nurture on intelligence?

Back 60

Nature suggests that genes, neuroanatomy and studying families all influence intelligence as genetic problems such as down syndrome can limit a person's intelligence. Nurture suggests that enriched-deprived environments and adoption studies influence

intelligence. Both nature and nurture contribute to intelligence. The reaction range demonstrates an individual's intelligence potential based on their genes however the environment determines if they reach their full potential or not.

Front 61

what is cultural bias and linguistic bias?

Back 61

Cultural bias is when tests reflect a culture of western, middle class,English rather than other cultures which puts individuals at a disadvantage of they are not of the culture that is reflected in the test. Linguistic bias occurs when the language that the test is

written in is not the individual's first language.

Front 62

describe Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Back 62

Bodily-kinesthetic: using the body in various ways (athlete)

Linguistic: understanding language (Shakespeare)

Musical: pitch and rhythm (Mozart)

Logical-mathematical: problem solving (Einstein)

Spatial: applying concepts to real life (architect)

Naturalistic: understanding nature (Steve Irwin)

Interpersonal: understanding others (counsellor)

Intrapersonal: understanding yourself (yourself)

Front 63

describe Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Back 63

Creative: dealing with new tasks (restarting a car in a desert with little resources)

Practical: applying concepts to real life situations (being stuck in a room and being able to pick the lock)

Analytical: cognitive processes (solving quadratic equations)

Front 64

define emotional intelligence

Back 64

Emotional intelligence is the ability to express one's emotions and handle interpersonal

relationships empathetically.

Front 65

describe the Stanford-Binet test (include its strengths and limitations)

Back 65

The Stanford-Binet test assessed and predicted performance in school.

- insensitive to age

+ evaluated by psychologists making it better than IQ test

Front 66

describe the Myer Briggs Type Indicator

Back 66

The MBTI shows how different personalities can be suited to different jobs.

Extroversion (E) - Introversion (I)

"outgoing" -"reserved"

Sensing (S) - Intuition (N)

trust experience - trust impressions

Thinking (T) - Feeling (F)

logical - decisions with the heart

Judging (J) - Perceiving (P)

avoid rushing - stimulated by approaching deadlines

Front 67

what is the MMPI used for?

Back 67

MMPI is used to test a personality for any problems (hypochondriac or depression)

Front 68

describe the dependent variable

Back 68

the variable that is being tested for (the results)

Front 69

describe the independent variable

Back 69

the variable that is being applied to the experimental group

Front 70

describe the confounding variable

Back 70

any extraneous variables that were not eliminated during random allocation that may

have affected the results

Front 71

describe the extraneous variable

Back 71

any variable other than the IV that may have affected the results

Front 72

what does it mean to operationalise the IV? (include example)

Back 72

to make the independent variable precisely defined (drinking 2 cups of coffee or drinking no coffee)

Front 73

what does it mean to operationalise the DV? (include example)

Back 73

to make the dependent variable precisely defined (measured by mean score on a twenty word memory test)

Front 74

what is a control group? what is an experimental group?

Back 74

A control group is the group in sample that is unaffected by the IV andis used as a comparison against the experimental group whereas the experimentalgroup is affected by the IV.

Front 75

what is a Likert scale?

Back 75

A Likert scale is a scale that uses numbers such as 1-5 to demonstratethe strength of a person's attitude towards an issue. For example 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree

Front 76

explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative data (include benefits and

limitations)

Back 76

Qualitative data is data that is descriptive

+ more detailed but

- harder to draw results from as the data as more difficult to group.

Quantitative data is data that is numerical

+ easily grouped and can also

+ provides a mean, mode and median

- less detailed.

Front 77

what is frequency distribution?

Back 77

frequency distribution is the mathematical function that displays the number of instances in which a variable takes each of its possible values

Front 78

what is a correlation study?

Back 78

A correlation study investigates the relationship between two or more variables.

Front 79

describe positive and negative correlations

Back 79

Positive correlations is when the a variable increases with the other variable whereas

negative correlations is when one variable decreases as the other increases

Front 80

explain the relationship between each variable

Back 80

Zero correlation: no relationship between the two variables

Positive correlation: relationship that has positive outcomes

Negative correlation: relationship that has negative outcomes

Front 81

what does the strength of the relationship tell us?

Back 81

The strength of the relationship tells us how closely dependent the dependent variable is on

the independent variable and how it is affected.

Front 82

define mean

Back 82

Mean is the average value in a sequence of numbers.

Front 83

define mode

Back 83

Mode is the most common value in a sequence of numbers.

Front 84

define median

Back 84

Median is the middle value in a sequence of numbers.

Front 85

define standard deviation

Back 85

Standard deviation is how far, on average, a score differs from the mean.

Front 86

name the sections of a psychology report and what should be included

Back 86

Abstract: summary of report

Introduction: background information, aim, hypothesis, IV and DV

Method: selection and allocation of participants

Results:

Discussion: conclusion and generalisation

Front 87

what does reliability and validity mean?

Back 87

Reliability refers to how consistent the measuring instrument is and validity refers to if the test effectively tests what is was supposed to test

Front 88

what is the difference between population and sample?

Back 88

population is the overall subject that the results are being applied to whereas the sample is a smaller segment from the population that has been tested and is usually representative of the population so the results therefore apply to the population as well

Front 89

name and describe the different sampling methods

Back 89

Convenience: the easiest way of obtaining a sample (a teacher using its students as a

sample)

Random: all members of the population have an equal chance of being chosen to be a part of the sample (drawn out of a hat)

Stratified: population is divided into strata (year level, age etc) and is then randomly sample from each strata

Front 90

what needs to occur in research in order to make a generalisation?

Back 90

In order to make a generalisation, the sample must be representative of the population.

Front 91

what ethical issues need to be addressed in an experiment?

Back 91

informed consent, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, deception, voluntary participation, debriefing, beneficence, integrity,

justice and respect