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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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The scientific study of mind and behavior
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Mind
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Our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feeling
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Behaviour
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Observable actions of human being and nonhuman animals
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Structuralism
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The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
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Functionalism
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The study of purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
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Sensation
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Simple awareness due to the stimulation of a sense organ
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Perception
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The organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
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Transduction
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The process of sensors in the body converting physical signals from the environment to neural signals in the central nervous system (i.e. CNS)
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Receptive field
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The region of sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change i the firing rate of that neuron
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Object agnosia
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Loss of the ability to recognize objects by sight
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Binocular disparity
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Difference in retinal images of the two eyes that proves depth information
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Monocular depth cues
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Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with one eye
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Pitch
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How high or low a sound is
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Loudness
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A sound's intensity
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Timbre
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A listener's experience of sound quality or resonance
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Pain gate
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Area where signals arriving from pain receptors can be stopped by inter-neurons in the spinal chord.
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Learning
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Experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
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Experience
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The process or fact of personally observing, encountering, or undergoing something
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Behavior
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The outward and viewable traits of human beings and animals
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Habituation
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General process in which exposure to a stimulus over time results in a gradual reduction in responding
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Classical conditioning
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When a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
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A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus
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A stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism
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Conditioned Response
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A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
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Operant conditioning
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A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
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Reinforcement
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Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
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Punishment
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Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
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Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
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An operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses
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Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
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An operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average number of responses
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Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
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An operant conditioning principle which presents the reinforcements at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made
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Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
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An operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time
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Shaping
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Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior
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Cognitive Map
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A mental representation of the physical features of the environment
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Extinction
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Presenting a conditioned stimulus without the unconditional stimulus after classical conditioning has occurred
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Latent Learning
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Where something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioral change
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Observational learning
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Condition where learning takes place by watching the actions of others
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is split into the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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The peripheral nervous system involves afferent and efferent nerves
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Limbic System
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It involves many forebrain structures, including: the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. It is involved in motivation, emotion, and learning.
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Amygdala
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The structure that first appraises stimuli and is responsible for emotion
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Hippocampus
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It is responsible for creating new memories
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Association Areas
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Areas within the cerebral cortex that connect information together into something meaningful
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Broca's Area
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Plays a key role in planning language. Damage to Broca's Area would cause trouble in assembling syntax, but no trouble in understanding language
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Wernicke's Area
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Important for understanding language. Damage would cause trouble in understanding what is said, but no trouble in stringing words together or recognizing the nuances of language.
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Genotype
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The genetic information of an individual
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Phenotype
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The expression of genes as proteins
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Proximate Mechanism
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A statement of the conditions needed to bring about a specific behavior in the present context.
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Ultimate Mechanism
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An explanation provided in an evolutionary context showing the reasons for specific behavior.
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Natural Selection
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The process in which the environment's conditions favors organisms with certain traits
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Artificial Selection
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Humans breed organisms with characteristics that they find favorable
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Empiricism
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Belief that knowledge can only be gained through experience
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Scientific method
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An established set of procedures to obtain credible, measurable data
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Operational definition
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Defining something in measurable terms.
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Observational Study
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A study where the data is based on observations
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Correlational Study
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A study where the relationship between two variables is observed.
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Quasi-experimental study
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An experiment that does not have randomization
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Experiment
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A study where all of the variables are controlled, and one is manipulated. Randomization must occur in order for the study to be an experiment
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Observer Expectancy
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A bias where the expectations of the observer influence the results that are recorded
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Neuron
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Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks
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Cell body
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The part of the neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
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Dendrite
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The part of the neuron that receives information from other neurons and sends it into the cell body
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Axon
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The part of the neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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Myelin Sheath
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An insulating layer on the Neurons
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Glial Cells
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The support cells found in the nervous system
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Synapse
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Junction region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite/cell body of another
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Afferent Neuron
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Neurons that conduct impulses inwards to the brain/spinal cord
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Efferent Neuron
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Neurons that conduct impulses outward from the brain/spinal cord
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Inter-neuron
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Neurons that connect to motor/sensory neurons and other inter-neurons
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Action Potential
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An electric signal that is conducted along an axon to a synapse
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Neurotransmitter
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Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to the dendrites of the receiving neurons
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Hormones
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Chemical substances that are produced in the endocrine system and then are transported in the blood to certain tissues for specific functions
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Nerves that carry involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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The nerves that prepare the body for action in a threatening situation
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Nerves that help the body return to a normal resting state
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Brain Stem
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Portion of the brain that continues with the spinal cord and comprises of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and parts of the hypothalamus; functioning in the control of reflexes, internal respirations, and heart beat.
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Medulla
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The extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation and respiration
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Reticular Activating Formation (RAF)
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The brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal
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Cerebellum
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A large structure of the hind brain that controls fine motor skills
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Pons
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The brain structure that sends information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
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Cerebral Cortex
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The outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and is divided into two hemispheres
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Thalamus
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A subcortical structure that sends and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus
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A structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
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Basal Ganglia
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A set of structures that direct intentional movements
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Corpus Callosum
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A thick band of nerve fibers that connect the large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres
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Emotion
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A positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
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Affect
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A mental state which may give rise to emotion
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Fast/Slow Pathways to Emotional Behavior
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Fast: Stimulus to thalamus to amygdala to emotion
Slow: Stimulus to thalamus to cortex to amygdala to emotion |
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Emotional Expression
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Any observable sign of an emotional state
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Sign
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Caused by the thing is signifies
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Symbol
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Arbitrary designations that have no causal relationship with the things they symbolize
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Universality Hypothesis of Emotional Recognition
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Hypothesis that emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis of Emotional Recognition
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The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
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Motivation
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The purpose for/cause of an action
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Drive
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An internal state generated by departures from physiological optimality
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Extrinsic Motivation
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A motivation to take actions taht are not themselves rewarding but that lead to reward
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Intrinsic Motivation
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A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
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Need for Achievement
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The motivation to solve worthwhile problems
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Approach Motivation
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The motivation to experience positive outcomes
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Avoidance Motivation
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A motivation not to experience negative outcomes
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Consciousness
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A person's subjective experience of the world and mind
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Circadian Rhythm
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A naturally occurring 24-hour cycle
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REM sleep
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The stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity
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Preservation Theory of Sleep
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States that sleep is evolutionary and adaptive, allowing species to preserve their energy and be protected from predators
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Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep
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States that the adaptive function of sleep allows species to recover from the excesses of the day
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Information Consolidation Theory of Sleep
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States that during REM sleep, the brain undergoes changes which include the coordination and making of connections of neural pathways, which affects the cognitive/learning function of the species
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Memory
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The ability to store and retrieve information over time
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Encoding
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The process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
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Storage
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The process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
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Elaborative Encoding
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The process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory
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Visual Imagery Encoding
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The process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
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Organizational Encoding
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The act of categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items
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Sensory Memory
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The place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds of less
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Iconic Memory
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A fast decaying store of visual information
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Echoic Memory
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A fast decaying store of auditory information
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Information Consolidation Theory of Sleep
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States that during REM sleep, the brain undergoes changes which include the coordination and making of connections of neural pathways, which affects the cognitive/learning function of the species
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Memory
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The ability to store and retrieve information over time
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Encoding
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The process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
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Storage
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The process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
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Elaborative Encoding
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The process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory
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Visual Imagery Encoding
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The process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
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Organizational Encoding
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The act of categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items
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Sensory Memory
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The place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds of less
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Iconic Memory
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A fast decaying store of visual information
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Echoic Memory
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A fast decaying store of auditory information
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Working Memory
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Active maintenance of information in short term storage
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Rehearsal
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The process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it
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Chunking
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Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters/chunks that are more easily held in short term memory
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Long Term Memory
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A plcae in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks, or years
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Anterograde Amnesia
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The inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store
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Retrograde Amnesia
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The inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation
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Long Term Potentiation
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Enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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The idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-created the specific way in which information was initially encoded
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State-dependent Retrieval
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The tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
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Explicit Memory
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The act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
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Implicit Memory
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The influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not aware that they are remembering them
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Procedural Memory
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The gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice of knowing how to do things
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Semantic Memory
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A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
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Episodic Memory
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The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
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Priming
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An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of recent exposure to the stimulus
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Proactive Interference
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Situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
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Retroactive Interference
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Situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
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Blocking
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A failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
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Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
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The temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory, accompanied by the feeling that you are on the verge of recovering the information
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False recognition
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A feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before
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Flashbulb memory
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Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
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