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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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grasp a bottle
eat with a knife and fork read and write love and hate |
Things people can learn
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Process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential based on experience
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Learning
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simplest of all forms of learning
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Habituation
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the decline in the tendency to respond to a stimulus that has become familiar due to repeated exposure
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Habituation is
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city person sleeping in the country
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Example of Habituation
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does not imply a relationship; does not associate two things together
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Recognizing an event as familiar
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acquisition of fairly specific pattern of behavior in presence of well defined stimulus; also known as stimulus response learning
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Conditioning
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Classical conditioning; won Nobel Prize for research on digestion
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Ivan Pavlov
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a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention
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neutral stimulus
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stimulus that evokes a response innately (naturally)
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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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unlearned or innate response to a UCS
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unconditioned response (UCR)
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stimulus that through association evokes a response normally associated with a UCS
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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response that through association is evoked by the CS in anticipation of the UCS
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conditioned response (CR)
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CS-UCS association
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what is learned in classical conditioning?
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1. Presentation, Order, Timing
2. Generalization 3. Discrimination 4. Extinction |
Important aspects of classical conditioning
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CS just before UCS works best
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Presentation, Order and Timing in classical conditioning
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CR elicited by stimuli similar to original CS. Little Albert and the furry objects
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Generalization in classical conditioning
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response to specific CS; ie: not all loud sounds are harmful
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Discrimination in classical conditioning
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elimination of the CS-UCS pairing, will suppress but not totally eliminate CR
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Extinction in classical conditioning
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reappearance of conditioned response during extinction
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spontaneous recovery
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attitudes and emotions formed by conditioning; used in advertising and marketing. ie: candy and Trix cereal
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conditioning social behaviors/examples in real world
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Classical
Operant |
Two types of Conditioning
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involves reflexive/automatic/involuntary behavior; aka Pavlovian conditioning; learning that one stimulus signals the arrival of another stimulus
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Classical Conditioning
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involves voluntary behavior; associated with reward or punishment; aka Instrumental conditioning; occurs when a behavior (response) changes its likelihood as a result of some consequence being made dependent on that behavior
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Operant Conditioning
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strengthens/increases response; you want to continue a behavior
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Reinforcement/Reward
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weakens response/decreases; you want to stop a behavior
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Punishment
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response adds something
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Positive
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response takes something away
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Negative
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adds something desirable; ie: candy; sales commission
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Positive Reinforcement/Reward
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adds something undesirable, ie: spanking; speeding ticket
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Positive Punishment
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takes away something undesirable; ie: no chores for a week; parent's nagging over chores stops
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Negative Reinforcement/Reward
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takes away something desirable; ie: grounded; time out; court takes away license
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Negative Punishment
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reinforcing successive approximations of the desired response; type of operant conditioning
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Shaping
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Which is more effective, punishment or reward?
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Reward; Punishment leads to fear
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desire to perform behavior for its own sake; enjoyment, sense of accomplishment
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Intrinsic
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desire to perform behavior for external reinforcement; food, money, awards
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Extrinsic
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decrease in intrinsic motivation after the behavior is extrinsically reinforced, and the reinforcement is discontinued. IE: children drawing
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Overjustification Effect
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must build on innate reflexes or feelings reacting to the environment
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Limitation of classical conditioning
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Operant Conditioning: We voluntarily "operate" on the environment when
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The way we respond is affected by the consequences of our behavior
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Operant Conditioning: To learn the relationship between response and consequence it is critical that
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the environmental stimulus comes after the response and is obtained by the action of the learner
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puzzle box with cats; time to solve problem decreased with the number of trials. DV=time; IV=number of trials
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Thorndike
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desirable consequences=increase in behavior
undesirable consequences=decrease in behavior Sheldon trains Penny video |
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
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used a Skinner box with rats and levers
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Skinner
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Important aspects in Operant Conditioning
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1. Shaping
2. Generalization 3. Discrimination 4. Extinction 5. Superstitious behavior |
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rewarding successive approximations; pigeon going in circle
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Shaping in Operant Conditioning
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respond to similar situations; rat learns reinforcement for pushing lever 1 or 2, any lever gives it food
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Generalization in Operant Conditioning
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respond only to one situation; rat only gets food with lever 1
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Discrimination in Operant Conditioning
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no reinforcement or punishment leads to response being suppressed (not eliminated), but spontaneous recovery
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Extinction in Operant Conditioning
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coincidental consequence; ie: lucky socks
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Superstitious Behavior in Operant Conditioning
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Timing is crucial, the closer they are the easier the association is made
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Mechanics of Operant Conditioning
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1. continuous schedule
2. partial schedule |
Two types of reinforcement schedules of Operant conditioning
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reinforced after every response, not very effective. Bill Murray & Steve Martin SNL video
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Continuous schedule
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responses are reinforced only part of the time
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Partial schedule
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Two types of partial schedules in Operant Conditioning
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1. variable ratio
2. fixed ratio |
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reinforced after a random (variable) number of responses (ratio); Response #4, 13, 39
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Variable ratio schedule
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reinfored after a specific number (fixed) of responses (ratio); Response# 4, 8, 12
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Fixed ratio schedule
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variable ration ie: slot machines
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One of the best partial schedules is?
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Classical and Operant Conditioning are typically viewed as examples of?
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Behaviorism
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The problem with a strict behavioristic view of learning can depend on mental processes that cannot be directly observed, and that organisms can be active processors of information.
We actively do something to learn! Examples of cognitive learning: 1. causal attributions 2. observational learning Ultimately, these problems led to the study of the mental activities involved with the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (study of cognition) |
Cognitive Learning
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learning about the causes of behaviors requires thinking about the causes. People want to know why things happen.
Example:Thinking about the cause of doing well on an exam (studying hard) vs. doing poorly on an exam (Dr. Golding's fault, people do not automatically blame themselves for doing poorly) |
Causal Attributions
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Professor Bandura- Bobo doll experiment
Two groups of kids one group of kids watched an adult hit a bobo doll, the other group of kids didn't see the adult hit the bobo doll. IV: whether kids observe aggression or not DV: measure, how often the kid shows aggression to the bobo doll. Kids who viewed the adult being aggressive to the bobo doll were more aggressive with the bobo doll. People remember what it is they see, and they act out that measure. |
Observational Learning
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active processing of information
Example: deciding what to rehearse (e.g. Studying) One important aspect of cognitive learning is memory. |
Cognition
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a set of skills that involve the mental capacity to store and later retrieve previously experienced events; critical for normal functioning; an aspect of cognitive learning
central to being human our self is created through our memories |
Memory
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processing of physical sensory input into one's memory; getting information into your memory
depends on: attention |
encoding/acquisition
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1. Attention
2. Imagery--concrete vs. abstract words; concrete easier to remember 3. Organization--chunking of information; more organized better able to remember 4. Type of rehearsal--maintenance (repeating in a rote fashion) and elaborative (giving meaning to the rehearsal of information, more effective |
Factors affecting encoding
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limited pool of cognitive resources.
withdrawal from some things to deal effectively with others We don't always pay attention: Examples: penny, which side is Lincoln facing? If we don't think it's important we don't pay attention; peopleswap video, people were swapped right in front of people and no one noticed, moonwalking bear, if you are highly focused on one thing you don't notice what else is going on, attention is limited |
attention
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1. Motivation and emotion ie: weapon focus
2. Stress and anxiety ie: Yerkes-Dodson Law, where a medium level of stress produces optimal performance |
Factors affecting attention
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information that is retained; the 3 store Model of Memory (sensory, short term, long term)
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storage (retention)
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ability to recall previously encoded information; 3 types:
1. recall 2. recognition 3. relearning |
retrieval
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1. sensory memory/sensory information store
2. short term (working) memory 3. long term memory |
3 types/subsystems of memory
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the immediate initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; takes in relatively large amount of information but doesn't classify it
no storage capacity very fast 1 sec there is an SIS for each sense, ie: for vision, iconic memory |
sensory memory/sensory information store(SIS)
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holds a few items briefly
rehearsal leads to encoding in long term memory consciousness--what you are conscious of at any one given time 7 items +/- 2 (5-9) about 15 sec or less if no rehearsal |
short term memory (active memory)
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hippocampus is critical
permanent and limitless capacity for storage ease of retrieval depends on the quality of encoding and storage holds general knowledge about the world |
long term memory
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1. semantic--facts about the world
2. episodic--autobiography of your life 3. procedural--memory for how to do things |
Three different types of knowledge
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occurs due to the way information is processed; early items receive more attention, while later items are still in short term memory; easier to forget middle items
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serial position effect/curve
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recall is better for information at beginning of list; retrieves from long term memory
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primacy effect
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recall is better for information at end of list; retrieves from short term memory
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recency effect
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quantitatively different stimuli are remembered more and more vividly ie: sex
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Von Restorff Effect
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recalling associated words but word was never on the list
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false memory effect
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chunking of similar information in memory; retrieval errors lead to false recollection
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false memory production is?
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1. in court, false testimony
2. in clinical settings, patients remember things that never happened |
false memory is a problem when?
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patients in therapy often recall traumatic childhood experiences that NEVER occurred ie: lost in mall
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false memory syndrome
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Memories are more accurate when?
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they are linked to powerful events, such as 9/11
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1. decay--natural decay
2. interference--information interferes; two types, retroactive and proactive 3. retrieval failure--information is there but we just can't get to it |
Why do we forget?
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interference from information after that which we will be tested on
Study A Study B Test A--experimental group Study A study nothing Test A--control group |
Retroactive interference
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interference from information that comes before that which you will be tested on
Study A Study B Test B--experimental group study nothing Study B Test B--control group |
Proactive interference
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memory is best when encoding context matches the retrieval context
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Encoding specificity
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2 Ways to avoid forgetting?
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1. Internal Mnemonics
2. External Mnemonics |
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the importance of meaning, attaching meaning to information; using imagery
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Internal Mnemonics
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force you to pay attention; ie: calendar, birth control pills
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External Mnemonics
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learn and behave adaptively. ie: Forrest Gump
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People differ in their ability to
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1. denied admission to college based on test score
2. fair to all individuals 3. function of heredity or environment (nature vs. nurture) |
Using mental tests raises questions about?
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-use of specialized testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of people
-used to make more informed decisions about current problems or to help make future choices in a person's life |
psychological assessment
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1. reliability
2. validity 3. standardization |
Basic features of psychological assessment
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ability of test to produce consistent and stable results; two types: internal consistency and test-retest reliability
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reliability
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test is consistent overall; different parts of the same test produce the same results
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internal consistency reliability
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repeated administration of the test produce the same result
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test-retest reliability
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how well the test measures what it is supposed to measure; can be about theoretical construct or future performance
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validity
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test should be administered to all people in the same way under the same conditions; this leads to norms and a bell shaped curve
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standardization
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statistical standards used for comparison
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norms
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normal distribution of scores; most scores are lumped in the middle with extremes on both sides
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bell shaped curve
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the capacity to profit from experience, go beyond the given to the possible, think abstractly using symbols and concepts, be goal directed
-allows us to learn and behave adaptively -allows humans to gain dominance over more powerful and numerous animals |
intelligence
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-hired by the French government to detect children who couldn't benefit from regular school;
-tested primarily verbal ability -believed intelligence increased with age -compared mental age score with chronological age |
Binet & Simon (1905)
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absolute level of cognitive capability for a given age; varies
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mental age score (MA)
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actual age; does not vary
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chronological age (CA)
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-Revised Binet's test, now the Stanford-Binet test
-standardized test administration and age level norms -used notion of IQ score -compares scores against kids of same age |
Terman (1916)
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(MA/CA) x 100
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IQ=?
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-descendants of Binet & Simon or Terman
-provide as much info as possible in short time -consists of short problems or questions that are easily scored |
Today's IQ tests
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-constructed IQ test for adults that includes both verbal and performance subtests. ie: calendar test, picture arrangement
-showed stability of intelligence over time |
David Wechler
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1. low end--developmentally disabled/mentally challenged 70 or below
2. high end--gifted, 135 and above; no clear answer why, is it more cognitive ability or intense motivation? |
Extremes of Intelligence
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low IQ and have difficulty adapting to normal demands of living independently
examples: mild 50-70 majority of developmentally disabled; can marry, maintain family, work in unskilled job profound below 20 mental age less than 3 years old, need constant care |
Developmentally disabled
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Major focus of nature vs nurture debate
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intelligence test performance
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1. look at correlation between family members for intelligence; should be positive and high
2. look at constancy in IQ over time for an individual; should stay stable 3. twin studies--compare identical and fraternal twins, intelligence should be higher for identical twins 4. adoptive children studies--should be higher correlation between child and natural mother when compared to child and adoptive mother |
How can we find out whether differences in intelligence within a group have a genetic basis?
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1. the correlation between child and natural mother is not very high
2. enriched environments (ie: better education) lead to higher IQs than impoverished environments |
Environmental arguments for intelligence
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BOTH heredity and environment; genes may set intellectual limits for a person in a given environment but even these limits may be changed by changing the environment
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Play a role in determining differences in IQ within groups
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