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125 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Describe development |
-systematic changes and continuities from conception to death note: traditionally, many people associate development with physiological/biological development |
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name the goals of scientific study of human development |
-description -explanation -optimization |
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describe the description goal of scientific study of human development |
to describe the patterns of development
examples: -25% of babies can lift their head at 1.3 months -memory, age, speed, and reasoning all decline with age as vocabulary increases. |
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describe the explanation goal of scientific study of human development |
its describing why things happen the way they do |
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describe the optimization goal of scientific study of human development |
trying to find ways to optimize the developmental process -bringing people to their full genetic potential |
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Exercise:
Dr. Galan wrote a popular book for parents, providing information on what behaviors can be expected of a typical infant. This sort of publication primarily reflects which goal of development psychology? |
description |
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what are the seven important themes for lifespan development? Who established these? |
-Its a life-long process -multidirectional -both gains and losses -life-long plasticity --historical/cultural related -multiply influenced -multiple disciplinary fields
-Paul Bates (1987) |
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describe the life-long process theme of modern life-span development |
-its not just "kid stuff" -we develop all throughout the lifespan, constantly learning and coping |
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whats the difference between life-span and life expectancy? |
life-span: the absolute longest that something can live life expectancy: how many years someone is expected to live...at the beginning of life, they are expected to live to an average age |
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describe the multidirectional theme of modern life-span development |
-different abilities produce different outcomes -everyone will have a different trajectory in development -different capacities show different patterns
example: some people lose skills as they grow past adulthood, while others continue to improve, or lose skills at different rates |
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what is the difference between crystallize intelligence and fluid intelligence? |
Crystallize intelligence: something that we have learned somewhere Fluid intelligence: does not have to do with education; solve novel problems or things that we have never seen before
-both increase with age, but once at the age of 25, fluid intelligence usually declines while crystallize stays fairly constant |
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describe the both gains and losses theme in the modern life-span development |
each stage of life has both gains and losses in development, and the ratio of gains and losses also changes as we go throughout life
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describe the life-long plasticity theme of modern life-span development |
plasticity: the ability to change in responding to experiences; the adaptability of an organism to changes in its environment or differences between its various habitats
-everyone in each stage has some sort of plasticity, its just that older adults tend to less amount of plasticity than younger adults. -we carry the ability to respond to the environment and develop characteristics from them |
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describe the historical/cultural related theme of modern life-span development |
The trajectories of our lives can be effected for years by the social context in which we grew up in; development will be constantly changing as cultural norms, standards, and historical events change |
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describe the multiply influenced theme of the modern life-span development |
-each person has their own environment and they react a different way to it than others would -some influences are experienced by all humans at similar ages, others are common to people of a particular generation, and still are unique to the individual |
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describe the multiple disciplines theme of modern life-span development |
-development is influenced by a large variety of variables, which means it also requires a large variety of disciplines from a variety of areas -not only psychologists can help us with our understanding of life-span development...neurologists, historians, economists, sociologists, and many others can all contribute to a fuller understanding of life-span development |
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describe the main message that Brofenbrenner's model is portraying |
there are dynamic and reciprocal interactions between individuals and the environment (its not just a one-way street) |
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what is the microsystem? |
micro: small
-the environment that we are immersed in; face to face; intimate
examples: -home -peer group -day care -school |
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what is the mesosystem? |
meso: relationships
-the interrelations among different microsystems
example: -church- learning something in the sermon (counseling, youth group) and sharing with the family -conflict at home- this can cause a child to withdraw from staff members or peers at daycare or school |
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describe the exosystem |
-The individual is not immediately in the environment
examples: -the parents work place is exo- for the child..the child isnt in the work place -ex-boyfriend- not exactly a part of them, but they still affect you -the local school board changing the way the children are taught is exo- to a child in that school system |
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describe the macrosystem |
culture
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describe the chronosystem |
chrono: time
-the historical influence
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why do we use the scientific method? |
-we use it to collect data to create theories because we dont trust our own ideas without them being tested (we want evidence) -all beliefs, no matter how probable they may seem and no matter how many people share them, may be wrong. Until beliefs are tested, they remain as a hypothesis. |
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describe what all scientific inquiries start with |
-questions- based on observation of reality -form a hypothesis- the nest answer to out question at that point; it needs to be specific, testable, and falsifiable -design experiments to collect data -analyze data to draw conclusions |
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what are the research methods in psychology? |
correlation or experimental |
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describe the experimental method and what are its strengths and weaknesses? |
-an investigator manipulates or alters something in the environment (independent variable) to see how it effects behavior (dependent variable) -you are able to establish unambiguously that one thing causes another--->however, sometimes the results found in the lab are not replicated in the real world due to the artificial set up |
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what must be included in an experiment? |
-manipulation of the independent variable -random assignment of individuals -experimental control |
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describe the correlation method including its strengths and weaknesses |
-there is no manipulation and there are only 2 variables -researchers take people as they are and attempt to determine whether there are relationships among other experiences, characteristics, and developmental outcomes -it cannot unambiguously establish a causal relationship between one variable and another because there could possibly be third variables causing the relationship (also, v1 could cause v2, or vice versa) -some questions would be unethical to test experimentally -allows researchers to learn about multiple factors operating in the "real world" combine to influence development |
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what are the developmental research designs? |
-cross-sectional -longitudinal -sequential |
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what is a cross-sectional design, and what are its strengths and weaknesses? |
-compares age groups or cohorts -at one time, a researcher will test the age groups and make comparisons...from this, they can make some conclusions about development -provides information about age differences -it is a quick and easy design, however, the cohort effect and age groups cause problems with our conclusions and can paint us an untrue picture of development |
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what is a longitudinal design, and what are its strengths and weaknesses? |
-evaluating the performance of one cohort of individuals by assessing them repeatedly over time -it provides information about age changes rather than age differences and can indicate whether behaviors measured remain constant over time -this can take a very long time, people can drop out of the study because they are not interested anymore, they move away, or pass away. This results in a smaller and less reliable sample and data |
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what is a sequential design? |
-it combines the cross-sectional approach and longitudinal approach in a single study -researchers assess a group of 30 year olds longitudinally every 10 years, they would be assessed at 40 years old, but then another group of 30 year old would be added to the study -we can compare different age groups at a particular point in time, and it also allows us to to compare 30 year olds who were born and lived in different times |
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what are age effects? |
the effects of getting older |
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what is the time of measurement effect? |
something happens between testings |
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what is the cohort effect? |
the time you are born can effects your opinions, morals, intelligence, and performance.
-can minimize this, but never eliminate
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what are the data collection techniques? |
-verbal report -behavioral observation -physiological measurements -case studies |
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describe verbal reports in data collection |
-interviews, written questionnaires, surveys, ability and achievement tests, and personality scales all involving asking people questions either about themselves or other people -usually standardized; ask the same questions in precisely the same order of everyone so that the responses of different individuals can be dorectly compared |
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describe a case study |
defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. |
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what are the basic issues in human development? |
-goodness/badness of human nature -nature/nurture -activity/passivity -continuity/continuity -university/context-specificity |
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describe the goodness/badness issue in human development |
-are we born good or born bad? -Hobbes claims that we are born bad and that it is up to us to shape babies into civilized people (nurture) -Rousseau claims that we are born good and we will develop on our own (nature) -Locke claims that we are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and experiences and environment will shape the individual |
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what did Hobbes think about goodness/badness? |
we are born bad and that is us to us to shape the babies and civilize them (nurture) |
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what did Rousseau think about goodness/badness? |
we are born good (knowing right and wrong), and we will develop on our own as long as society didnt interfere (nature) |
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what did Locke think about goodness/badness? |
we are born a blank slate (Tabula Rasae) and our experiences will shape us into individuals |
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describe the nature/nurture issue in human development |
the underlying cause of development
nature: heredity/genes; biological; maturation; something internally is driving us to develop the way we do nurture: environmental; experiencial; learning; something externally is driving us to develop the way we do |
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describe the activity/passivity issue in human development |
-the role that an individual plays in his/her development Activity: you yourself have the passion to do something; the reasons why you perform is due to a passion, not requirements of the environment Passivity: you are letting your environment shape you; dont really care about what job you get, as ling as it makes good money |
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describe the continuity/discontinuity issue in human development |
the pattern of development over an individuals life
Continuous: quantitative changes; very smoothe development; gradual changes Discontinuity: qualitative changes; looking at the changes a caterpillar goes through to develop into a butterfly; abrupt stages
-It all depends on how closely you look at the development; perspective of parent on child or aunts and uncles on child |
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describe universality/context-specificity issue in human development |
the pattern of development across different individuals
examples: puberty/menopause- universal (slightly cultural based on times) marriage/education- universal |
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why do we need theories? |
-we collect data and draw conclusions to make sense of our thoughts and behaviors -putting all of our theories together to allow us to see the whole picture -we stand on the shoulders of knowledge of our ancestors to continue to understand life and the way it happens |
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what is the psychodynamic perspective interested in? |
the inner dynamics of personality development |
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what was Freud's psychodynamic perspective? |
a psychoanalytic theory |
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describe the psychoanalytic theory |
people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life -biological instinct (forces that often provide an unconscious motivation for actions |
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name Erikson's perspective and what did it follow? |
neo-psychodynamic perspective--extended Freud's theory, trying to link it to things other than biology |
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describe Erikson's psychosocial thoery |
note: Erikson wasnt exactly a psychologist -physical development has two processes: personal-develop new skills and competence social-gain more social demands -there are 8 crisis conflicts with 2 possible outcomes; every time we overcome a crisis, we build psychological strength...if we do not, we are considered maladaptive |
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name the eight stages of personality development from Erikson |
1. trust vs mistrust (0-1) 2. autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3) 3. initiative vs guilt (3-6) 4. industry vs inferiority (6-adolescence) 5. identity vs role confusion (adolescence) 6. intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood) 7. generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. integrity vs despair (old age) |
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describe the trust vs mistrust stage in personality development |
(0-1) -babies cant do much, and must rely on others -they establish implicit feelings of trust in the people who are taking care of them, and also in themselves. They find out that they can trust themselves to get what they want if they need it. |
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describe the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage in personality development |
(1-3) -gaining the ability/responsibility to walk, talk, and potty train. If they are unable to do these things, they feel shameful. -begin to feel independent
note: at this age, our culture puts them through potty training. However, other cultures have other responsibilities at this time |
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describe the initiate vs guilt stage in personality development |
(3-6) -start setting goals and having initiative to reach the goals (not about college or cars...very small goals) -develop gender roles and a sense or morality |
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describe the industry vs inferiority stage in personality development |
(6-adolescence) -children begin to learn cognitive skills and social skills -if the kids dont do well, they feel bad (inferior) -kids strive to be popular |
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describe the identity vs role confusion stage of personality development |
(adolescence) -ask "who am I?" -kids who have trouble with self of self tend to struggle in other places note: this stage doesnt necessarily go away. We continue to ask ourselves this throughout life sometimes |
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describe the intimacy vs isolation stage in personality development |
(young adulthood) people decide whether they want kids of if they want to be alone |
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describe the generativity vs stagnation stage in personality development |
(middle adulthood) -parents usually have an empty nest by now and have a lot of time to themselves -start to see the effects of age while mortality becomes real -generativity: having an interest in establishing guiding the next generation; having concern with what kind of world they want to leave behind; developing a concern about the environment...want to leave the world better for the next generation -stagnation: dont know what to do...buy a new car, new house, get a new wife |
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describe the integrity vs despair stage in personality development |
(old age) -older adults develop the sense of acceptance of the limits of life -make peace about what they have done and have not done...if they dont do this, they beat themselves up (despair) -people try to resolve some conflicts because they want to be at peace |
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evaluate Erikson's theory: -testability? -how is it different from Freud? |
-even though it is very easy to relate, not easy to test -gives us a sense of direction, and has a more optimistic view of people -covers the WHOLE lifespan |
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describe the learning perspective |
these psychologists emphasize the importance of experience to an extreme; environment determines development |
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who had the learning perspectives? |
-Watson -Skinner -Bandura |
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what did Watson practice and study? |
radical behaviorism and classical conditioning |
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What type of behavior did Watson believe should be the only kind studied? |
observable |
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describe classical conditioning |
-used to generate behavior through associations -development is equal to learning associations
note: Watson stated that Albert developed fear from association...he learned it |
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describe the study with Albert: -NS -NR -US -UR -CS -CR |
-neutral stimulus: rat -neutral response: no response -unconditioned stimulus: loud noise -unconditioned response: crying -conditioned stimulus (after conditioning): rat -conditioned response (after conditioning): crying and fear |
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what did Skinner practice? |
operant conditioning |
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describe operant conditioning |
situation leads to behavior, and that behavior has a consequence (either favorable or unfavorable) with a goal to modify behavior -consequences are contingent on behavior
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describe the Skinner box situation when a reward was given every 15 seconds |
the pigeon would perform random acts, because that was what they thought brought on the reward. Actions ranged from kicking legs, to turning heads, or flapping wings. |
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Reinforcement _____________ behavior |
increases |
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punishment ______________ behavior |
decreases |
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positive punishment |
an unpleasant event is added to the situation following behavior
example: a child being spanked for misbehaving |
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negative punishment |
something pleasant is removed from the situation following behavior
example: a child loses the privilege of staying up late on Saturday night |
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negative reinforcement |
a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation, escaped, or avoided, after the behavior occurs. |
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positive reinforcement |
something has been added to the situation to strengthen the behavior
example: a child is given a hug after cleaning his room |
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what is the best way to modify behavior |
intermittent reinforcement
-rewards at random times |
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what was Bandura's theory |
social learning theory ----> bobo doll |
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how did Bandura's theory contribute to Skinner's and Watson's theories?
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Bandura believed Skinner's and Watson's theories, but he added observational learning
-we are cognitive beings...children are more likely to imitate popular kids vicarious reinforcement: we observe behavior, but the consequences happen to other people...not us |
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describe the Bandura's reciprocal determinism |
there is a mutual influence of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment |
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describe Bandura's reciprocal determinism theory approach, what else can it relate to? |
Brofenbrenners theory nature and nurture interact with each other |
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describe the concept of epigenetic |
-the study of heritable changes that are not caused by changed in DNA -proteins must read the DNA in order for it to function (we can choose to have our genes be expressed or not be expressed |
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describe the Cooper and Zubek (1958) experiment |
-animal study with selective breeding -bred rats that were maze-dull (bad at learning mazes) and maze-bright -placed rats in enriched environments vs standard vs impoverish. saw that maze-dull rats improved in enriched environment and maze-bright rats declined in impoverish environments...proving that manipulating the environment changes the phenotype (behave differently, not due to the gene) |
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describe the Caspi et al., 2003 analysis |
a 20 year long study on depression note: all depression drugs have something to do with serotonin. The amount of serotonin that the brain produces varies from person to person
They found that there was no correlation between depression and genotype if the number of stressfull events was low, but if the the number of stressful events was high, there was a correlation between genotype and depression |
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what must happen in order for DNA to be transcribed and be activated? |
an enzyme must attach to the promotor region of the gene |
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how is a gene silenced? |
methyl chemical groups attach to the promotor region
called DNA methylation; the genes will not be expressed |
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who was Gottlieb, and what did he believe in? |
a developmental biologist that believed in evolution
created the epigenetic psychobiological system perspective |
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describe Gottlieb's epigenetic psychobiological system perspective
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-it illustrates that all 4 levels (genetic activity, neural activity, and the environment) are related and can influence each other
-some genes can be silenced based on experiences |
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what are the three points of Gottlieb's theory? |
1.) new environment may lead to new behavior -early environment is critical to producing behaviors 2.) such new behaviors ass variations in the process of natural selection -mutation and reproduction may not be the only sources of variation 3.) If the environment remains the same, such new behaviors can be passed in the following generations |
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what are the three periods of prenatal development? |
-germinal -embryonic -fetal |
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what is the germinal period and what is happening? |
0-2 weeks beginning with conception, and 2 weeks later comes implantation -disk formed in the blastocyst is the embryonic disk (or germ disk), and this develops into the baby |
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what is the embryonic period and what is happening? |
3-8 weeks the most critical part of prenatal development -organogenisis occurs, where the body structures are formed in just a few weeks |
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what is formed during organogenisis? |
major body structures -ectoderm -mesoderm -ednoderm |
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what will the ectoderm become? |
outer layer; skin, hair, nails, and nervous system |
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what will the mesoderm become? |
middle layer; bones, muscles, circulatory system |
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what will the endoderm become? |
inner layer; digestive system, lungs, etc. |
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what are the three principles of growth? |
-cephalocaudal -proximadistal -orthogenetic |
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describe the cephalocaudal principle of growth |
development proceeds from head to toe -head starts out more than half of our size at the beginning of development, and by the time we are adults, the head is only 12% of our body |
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describe the proximodistal principle of growth |
development works from the center of the body out
note: the cephalocaudal principle and proximodistal principle both work together |
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describe the orthogenetic principle of growth |
we go from being global and undifferentiated (strem cells) to being specialized |
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what are the supporting systems? |
-embryonic sac, embryonic fluid, placenta and umbilical cord (both of these are the main ones)
note: in the placenta, the blood of mother and baby do not mix. It is stated to be "semi-permiable", where only particles and nutrients can pass |
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describe the fetal period of growth |
relatively uneventful on the inside, but it is on the outside -period of rapid growth and refinement of all body organ systems -systems start to work properly and begin to connect |
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describe the recapitulation notion of development |
our early prenatal development is very similar to other species, and our development looks like other animals, possibly our ancestors? We start to look like humans very late in our development |
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describe the three phases in the development of the reproductive systems
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-bipotential gonad
-genital tubercle -mullerian and wolffian duct |
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what diciphers whether we are going to be produced into a male or a female? |
the SRY gene of the Y chromosome -without the Y gene, the female reproductive system will develop |
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when do babies start to register experiences/hold a memory? |
in the last 2 months |
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describe the effects of PCBs on the development of a child |
at 4 years old, there may be some cognitive abilities that showed worse than their peers, but not everything; teens/adolescence, show the lowest IQ scores and reading comprehension |
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Freud emphasized the importance of _______in determining behavior
a. preoperational thought b. observational learning c. negative reinforcement d. unconscious motivation |
unconscious motivation |
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a four-year-old says, "Mommy, when I grow up I want to marry you and be your husband." What kind of complex are they experiencing? |
Oedipus |
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a criticism of Freudian psychoanalytic theory is that it puts too little emphasis on the.... a. biological instincts or urges that underlie behavior b. effects of later life experiences in development c. emotional side of development d.ways in which parents influence development |
effects of later life experiences in development |
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In comparison to Freud, Erikson placed a greater emphasis on a. infantile sexuality b. social influences c. operant conditioning principles d. biological determinants of behavior |
social influences |
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what was Erikson's theory praised for? |
looking at personality development across the lifespan |
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what is the basic premise of operant conditioning? |
the consequences that follow a behavior impact the likelihood of the behavior being repeated |
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what is reciprocal determinism? |
a continuous back and forth interaction between a person, his or her behavior, and the environment |
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who championed the position called constructivism? |
Piaget |
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a theorist with a(n) ________ perspective would be most likely to focus on the interactions between the changing environmental context and a person who is producing changes in the environment |
systems |
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"senior" discounts i meals available only to individuals over the age of 55 provide an excellent example a(n) |
age grade |
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learning is defined as the process through which _______ brings about relatively permanent changes in actions, thoughts, or feelings |
experiences |
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the fact that specific historic events can influence development is best explained by the influences of the |
chronosystem |
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what goal does this portray? discovering ways to help children with learning problems achieve more success in school |
optimization |
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who is often cited as the most influential of the baby biographers? |
Charles Darwin |
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what physical and mental symptoms develop in a child if their mother drank alcohol while they were in the womb? |
-can effect hormone functions of the placenta -have a small head and distinctive facial abnormalities (small eye openings. flat midface, short nose, indistinct groove between nose and mouth, low nostril bridge, thin upper lip, minor ear abnormalities), they are smaller and ligher than normal while their physical growth lags behind that of their age-mates. These symptoms clustered together would be dubbed as fetal alcohol syndrome -FAS children show signs of central nervous system damage, and score well below average on IQ test throughout childhood, and many are mentally retarded -hyperactive behavior and attention deficits are common |
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what physical and mental symptoms develop in a child if their mother smoked tobacco while they were in the womb?
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-usually are smaller in size, and will most likely end up in neonatal intensive care and experience some degree of central nervous system impairment
-more susceptible to respiratory infections and breathing difficulties -the risk of SIDS increases -slows fetal growth -has also been linked to other cognitive difficulties and behavioral problems -may have more negative effects on the on the developing baby than cocaine |
