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214 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is diversity? |
Diversity is the inclusion of all groups at alllevels in an organisation; any characteristicsthat serves as a basis for social categorizationand self-identification (Lussier & Achua, 2007) |
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What are the implications of diversity on communication? |
Diversity evokes biases, prejudices &stereotypes leading to complex groupinteractions (Milliken & Martin, 1996) |
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Implications of Diversity in Australia |
Australian's market share, efficiency, human capital, international competitiveness, and level of innovation will depend, in part, upon their ability to effectively manage cross-cultural relationships both within and across organisational boundaries. |
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Benefits and Challenges of InterculturalBusiness Communication |
Benefits: Innovation, problem solving, creativity and decision-making Challenges: Communications difficulties, high levels of conflict, negative emotions, stress |
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What is Culture? |
• Culture is a code when we learn and share, and learning andsharing require communication (Smith, 1966). • The collective “programming of mind” which distinguishesmembers of one human group from another (Hofstede, 2004). |
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What is communication? |
“the process by which people interactivelycreate, sustain and manage meaning” (Conrad and Poole, 1998). |
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How does culture and communication act together? |
Culture is the structure through which the communication isformulated and interpreted Intercultural communication is communication between peopleof different cultures and ethnicities |
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How does Edward T. Hall divide cultures? |
High-context cultures (group oriented-e.g.,Japanese, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern) viewthe context as importantly as the message itself. Low-context cultures (individual oriented-e.g.,Australian, Scandinavians) see the message asbeing the most important thing. |
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What are Hofstede's 7 dimensions of culture? |
1. Individualism/ Collectivisim 2. Power distance 3. Uncertainty avoidance 4. Masculinity/ Femininity 5. Long-term/Short-term orientation 6. Informality/Formality 7. Urgent/Casual time orientation |
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What is the factors in the Process of intercultural communication(Bennett, 1998)? |
• Language and the Relativity of Experience • Perceptual Relativity • Nonverbal Behaviour • Communication Style • Values and Assumptions |
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Language and the Relativity of Experience |
- Language as a communication tool but also a“system or representation” for perception andthinking |
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Perceptual Relativity |
Language and culture guide us makingfigure/ground distinctions Perceptualfigure/ground distinctions are learned. The perceiver is assumed torespond to culturally influencedcategorizations of stimuli. |
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Nonverbal Behavior |
Verbal language is digital but nonverbal languageis analogic |
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What is included in the process of intercultural communication |
Communication style: Linear style and contextual style Values and Assumptions |
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What are the Barriers to effective interculturalcommunication(Dwyer,2016) |
• Linguistic- colloquialisms, accent, vocab • Cultural- attitudes, values, beliefs • Perceptual- Stereotyping, prejudice • Non-verbal- NV codes, signals/interpretation • Experiential- attitudes, values, beliefs • Physical differences- time, space, environment,comfort needs • Emotional- negativity, stress, uncertainty |
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Types of perceptual bias |
Stereotypes, prejudice and Ethnocentrism |
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Stereotypes |
A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image |
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Prejudice |
The tendency to form an adverse opinion without just cause about people who are different from the mainstream in terms of their gender, race, ethnicity, or any other definable characteristic |
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Ethnocentrism |
The belief that one's own group or subculture is naturally superior to other groups and cultures |
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What is Intercultural Communication Competence? |
The ability to encode and decode meanings in signals that correspond to meaning held in the other communicator's repository. |
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What is Intercultural Communication Pyramid model comprised of? |
Desired External outcome Desired Internal outcome Knowledge and comprehension/ Skills Requisite Attitudes |
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What is Desired External outcome |
Behaving and communicating effectively and appropriately (based on one's intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes) to achieve one's goals to some degree |
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What is Desired Internal income? |
Shift of informed frame of reference/filter. Adaptability (to different communication styles and behaviors; adjustments to new cultural environments); flexibility (selecting and using appropriate communication styles and behaviors; cognitive flexibility); ethno-relative view; empathy |
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What is Pyramid model Knowledge & Comprehension? |
Cultural self-awareness, deep understanding and knowledge of culture(including contexts, role and impact of culture & and others' world views); Culture-specific information, sociolinguistic awareness |
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What is Pyramid model skills? |
To listen, observe; and interpret. To analyze, evaluate, and relate |
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What is Pyramid model Requisite Attitudes? |
Respect (valuing other cultures, cultural diversity) Openness and without judgement (to intercultural learning and to people from other cultures) Curiosity and discovery (tolerating ambiguity and uncertainty) |
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Two approaches to cultural learning. |
Culture-specific approach: Focusing on acquiring specific knowledge about "other" cultures. Culture-general approach: Communication competencies that would be useful in any cross-cultural situation, cultural awareness. |
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What is Intercultural intelligence? |
The ability to exhibit certain behaviours including skills,qualities which are culturally tuned to the attitudes andvalues of others
It involves:-Linguistic intelligence-Spatial intelligence-Intrapersonal intelligence-Interpersonal intelligence |
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What is the Developmental approach to cultural adaptation? |
Assimilation vs Adaptation |
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What are the characteristics of Ethnocentrism? |
-Denial -Defense -Minimization |
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What are the characteristics ofEthnorelativism? |
-Acceptance -Adaptation -Integration |
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Theoretical perspectives onintercultural communication |
I. Communication accommodation theory II. The integrated threat theory (ITT) ofprejudice (Stephen & Stephen, 1996) |
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Communication Accommodation theory |
When people interact they adjust their speech, their vocalpatterns and their gesture to accommodate to others. Convergence:• individuals adapt other’s communicativebehavior• reduces differences Divergence:• maintains integrity, distance or identity• individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbaldifferences. |
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What are cultural norms |
Socially shared ideas about appropriate or inappropriate behavior in a particular context. |
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Integrated Threat theory of prejudice (Stephanand Stephen, 1996) |
Role of intergroup attitudes (Interculturalcommunication & emotions):Intergroup threat is when one group's belief system, actions,or even identity challenges the security of another group Four factors determine levels of prejudice:1.Negative stereotyping2.Intergroup anxiety3.Realistic4.Symbolic |
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What are the Approaches to Communication in organisations |
Structural, Human relations, Cognitive, social Identity approach |
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What is the Structural Approach |
communication purpose task-oriented, to increaseproduction and efficiency. Communication systems inorganizations used to exercise of authority,coordination/control. The emphasis was on organizational structure and individualbehaviour, supported by formal, hierarchical and plannedcommunication. |
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What is theHuman resources Approach |
Belief social aspects of communication must be attended toin order for communication. Effective organizational communication was characterized by the flow of information both downwards and upwardsthrough an organization. This leads to fundamentallydifferent outcomes to one way communication. |
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Problem with Human relations and structural approaches? |
Assumes that networks were internal to theorganization and immune to externalfactors such as gender, culture or class ofemployees |
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Cognitive approach |
Focuses on cognitive biases in informationprocessing because of group membership Saves Information processing energy but tointroduce communicationerror |
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Cognitive Baises: Confirmatory hypothesis testing |
The tendency to distort information in order tomake it fit with expectations and pre-existingstereotypes (Snyder, 1981a, 1981b). ie self-fulfilling prophecy |
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What is Cognitive Baises: Information Management? |
When groups collectively handle information,they have a strong preference for exchangingmaterial that is common to all groupmembers rather than that to which only aminority have access (Wittenbaum & Stasser,1996) |
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How to avoid cognitive biases? |
Critical management (Larson et al, 1996) Assignment of group members to expertroles Making a group aware of which membershave access to unique information Suggests that these cognitive biases are not“hard-wired” and may respond to changes incontext |
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What is the social identity approach? |
“Perceptions of shared social identity providepeople with multiple motivations forcommunicating and also with a sharedcognitive framework that allows thiscommunication to be mutually beneficial andproductive” Helps identities to form of communication |
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What are the category's of shared social membership? |
1. To exert influence over others 2. Reduce uncertainty (social validation/verification) 3. Relational/affiliative needs 4. Obtain feedback 5. Coordinate group/team performance andmotivation All dependent on the self categorizationprocess |
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What is a communication network? |
An establishedpattern of communication among employeeswho work closely together. Is an establishedpattern of communication among employeeswho work closely together. Formal/Informal communication networks |
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Formal communication channel |
Conveysofficial, approved information.Direction of information flow Downward Upward Horizontal Diagonal |
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What are the types of formal communication networks? |
A chain network A Y network A wheel network A circle network All channel network |
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Problems with formal communication networks? |
Management is too centralized There are too many management levels The organizational structure is too complex |
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What is Informal Communication Systems? |
A system of interaction based upon friendship,common careers, proximity, commonextracurricular activities A way in which social identities (‘ingroups’ and‘outgroups’ can form Includes Single strand Gossip chain Probability chain Cluster chain |
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What are the Functions of informal networks? |
Confirming: confirms, formal messages Expanding: information that “fills the gaps” formal messages Expediting – speeds up the delivery of formalmessages Contradicting – contradicts formal messages Circumventing – By passes formal channelsthat are cumbersome and/or time consuming |
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What are the Advantages/disadvantages of informal communication systems? |
Advantages:- Faster action- Higher productivity- More job satisfaction- Release of tension- Easier feedback Disadvantages:- Conflict- Resistance to change- Conformity to informal group’s norms andstandards- Rumors/gossip |
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What is the grape vine? |
1. Not controlled by management 2. Perceived by most employees as beingmore believable and reliable than formalcommunication from top management(trust issues) 3. It serves the self-interests of those inthe group |
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Purpose of rumors? |
To reduce uncertainty To make sense of limited or fragmentedinformation To serve as a vehicle or to organize groupmembers, and possibly outsiders intocoalitions To signal a sender’s status and power |
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Network terminology |
Bridge links Gate keeper Liaison Isolate Network analysis: Provides a picture of thepatterns of interaction that define anorganisation’s communication structure. Itidentifies patterns of cliques and theconnectedness and openness of groups |
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Network analysis |
To capture structure of communication network and I identify roles like liaison and isolate. |
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Organisational Culture Definition |
• A culture exists when people come to share a commonframe of reference for interpreting and acting toward oneanother and the world in which they live • Includes language, values, beliefs, interpretations ofexperience • Culture is reflected in customs, expectations andcommunication |
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Impact of Organisational Cultureon Organisational Communication |
It affects norms (or cultural norms). These cultural norms guide organisationalcommunication, including how, when, why and withwhom employees communicate |
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Types of Mediated Communication |
Interactive Mediums• Electronic mail• Chat• Texting (SMS)• Forums Non-Interactive Mediums• Blogs• YouTube (and podcasts) Social Mediums• Facebook• TwitterVideoconferencing• Skype• Gmail video chat |
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Virtual Teams |
Dynamic teams whose members aregeographically and temporallydispersed but work remotely oftendependent on electronic technology Technology allows them to workpromptly across time, distance andcultures |
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Technology allows them to workpromptly across time, distance andcultures |
•increased talentpool •respond faster to increasedcompetition •flexibility especially work-life balance •control over their schedules increasing productivity • Reduces environmental impact |
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Disadvantages of Virtual Teams |
Increased social isolation Varying trust Communication issues: Asynchronous communication problems, Technology failures Perceived loss of power leading to conflict reduced supervision poor conflict management |
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Considerations in Choosing aCommunication Channel |
• Desired tone• Time required for feedback• Richness of information conveyed• Sender’s control over how message is composed• Control over receiver’s attention• Organisational culture |
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Key Theories and Models of communication media choice |
1. Dual Capacity Model of Communication Media Choice 2. Social Identity model of De-individuation Effects (SIDE) 3. Hyperpersonal Model of CMC |
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Dual Capacity Model of CommunicationMedia Choice |
Considers communication medium: 1. Data carrying capacity of media 2. Symbol carrying capacity of media Determinants of Media Choice1. Task contingency factors2. Communication capability constraints3. Normative contingencies |
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Data carrying capacity of media |
“The degree to which a medium is able to effectively andefficiently convey task-relevant data” Different media allow for verbal and non-verbal cues to betransmitted, allowing for greater understanding of taskrelevantdata |
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Symbol carrying capacity |
Media as carriers of meaning• To what extent can the medium incorporate language appropriateto the situation; to what extent can it effectively convey nuance,metaphor and deep structure? Media as symbols• To what extent does the medium represent or reflect the corevalues of the organisation? |
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Task Contingency Factors |
1. Task characteristics• Task uncertainty, task analyzability, urgency 2. Message characteristics• Complexity, clarity, volume, valence, relevance |
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Communication Capability Constraints |
1. Communicator characteristics• Competence, access, comfort, flexibility, self-monitoring 2. Recipient characteristics physical characteristics, media familiarity, interaction history, subject/context knowledge 3. Organizational characteristics• Experience, structure, resources, time availability, needs |
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Normative Contingencies |
1. Cultural norms 2. Role expectations 3. Institutional expectations |
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deindividuation |
a psychological state of decreased self evaluation,causing anti-normative and dis inhibited behavior. Occurs in crowds and in computer conferencing groups |
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SIDE Model |
Overall, anonymity (e.g., via CMC) can reinforceconformity to group norms and strengthen theimpact of social boundaries |
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Hyperpersonal Model of CMC |
Suggests that mediated communication offers advantagesover face-to-face communication. 1. Lack of non-verbal cues allows individuals to exert greater controlover first impressions 2. Participantscan carefully construct and plan their responses 3. Because of lack of cues oftenassume more positive characteristics |
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Traditional assumption of Technology and InterpersonalCommunication |
due to reduced physical, social andsometimes non-verbal cues, mediated communication is oftenchallenging and can lead to negative outcomes |
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Advantages of Mediated Communication |
1. Greater anonymity 2. Shy individuals may feel more wiling to speak up in amediated environment (esp. online) 3. “Safety valve” for adolescents 4. Strong and positive relationships can form online(dependent on trust, intimacy, time spent communicating,etc.) |
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Conflict definition |
“That state of a social relationship in which incompatible interestsbetween two or more people give rise to a struggle between them” |
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Role of Communication in conflict |
Communication can both functionas a trigger of conflict and as anessential means of managingconflict itself |
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Triggers of Conflict (Goodwin et al., 2009) |
• Roles, goals, policies and procedures • Information • Interpersonal Issues and Relationships • Values • Structures |
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Productive conflict |
• When conflict is kept to the issue/involved • Reduce intensity of negative feelings • No escalation and no interpersonal violence • Helps party to let go of past feelings • Conflict behaviors that foster better outcomes • Characterized by assertive communication with no personal insults |
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Destructive conflict |
• Conflict behaviours that lead to or aggravate poor outcomes for theindividuals, group members and/or organisations • Typically characterised by aggressive communication and personalattacks |
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Negotiation definition |
"a process where two or more parties with differentneeds and goals discuss an issue to find a mutually acceptablesolution” |
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Win-Lose Dynamics |
Zero sum: every gain of one party results in a corresponding loss in the other party Positive sum: gains of one party some how make the total available gains larger Negative sum: gains in one party some how make the total possible gains smaller |
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The Negotiation Process steps |
1. Commencing a negotiation 2. Choosing communication tools 3. Negotiation styles• Warner’s styles of negotiation 4. Negotiation strategies and tactics |
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Commencing a Negotiation: CriticalConsiderations |
1. Conduct research tounderstand and help topredict the behavior of theopposite party 2. Establish goals of thenegotiation process 3. Identify positions, fallbacksand bottom lines4. Identify any concessionsthat can be made to theother party 5. Understand the differencebetween positions andinterests |
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Choosing Communication Tools |
• Non-verbal sensitivity • Listening and questioning skills • Persuasive skills • Signalling skills • Cultural and gender sensitivity • Familiarity with communication channels |
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Negotiation Styles |
Warner’s Styles of Negotiation: Energy and Empathy• Pushy bullying• Confident promoting• Quietly manipulating• Carefully suggesting |
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Warner’s Styles of Negotiation: |
• Pushy bullying • Confident promoting • Quietly manipulating • Carefully suggesting |
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Pros and cons Pushy Bullying |
Pros• Loudly commands attentionon a key point• Draws negotiations to a rapidclose Cons• May adopt a “take it or leaveit” attitude• Is often insensitive andmisses points |
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Pros and cons Confident Promoting |
Pros• Quickly focuses on the majorissues• Wins people over withenthusiasm• Usually adapts flexibly toreach a deal Cons• Can be too aggressive• Can fail to listen fully |
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Pros and cons Quietly Manipulating |
Pros• Quickly draws attention toreal threats to agreement• Can subtly focus a debate Cons• May distort information or thetruth• Exploits other party’sweaknesses openly |
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Pros and cons Carefully Suggesting |
Pros• Keeps the negotiation calm• Good at drawing attention tothe ‘deeper’ issues Cons• Can fail to commit toconvincing the other side• May enjoy the negotiationmore than reaching theoutcome |
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Negotiation Strategies and Tactics |
1. “It’s official” 2. Grab the power seat 3. Record and facilitate 4. “You owe me one” 5. Getting the oppositionto set limits 6. Save face Nibble 7. 8. 9. Done accomplished Volume control10. Verify, verify, verify |
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Workplace Deviance definition |
“Voluntary behaviour of organizational members that violatessignificant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the wellbeingof an organization, its members, or both” Classified behaviour according to target and severity. |
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Workplace Deviance types |
Property Deviance, Production Deviance, Personal Aggression, Political Deviance |
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Property Deviance |
Serious organizationally harmfulbehaviorsExamples: Accepting kickbacks, lyingabout hours worked, stealing |
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Production Deviance |
Minor organisationally harmful behaviours Examples: Leaving early, deliberately working slowly |
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Personal Aggression |
Serious interpersonally harmfulbehavioursExamples: Sexual harassment,endangering co-workers, verbal abuse |
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Political Deviance |
Minor interpersonally harmful behaviours Examples: Gossiping about co-workers, showing favouritism |
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Consequences of WorkplaceDeviance |
Individual-level consequences of mistreatment: Reduced work performance, stress, absenteeism, turnover, poorerphysical and psychological well-being Consequences for organisations: Reduced financial performance ,Service sabotage can reducecustomer satisfaction and loyalty, leading to reduced growth andprofitability |
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Whistle-Blowing |
“The disclosure by organization members (former or current) of illegal,immoral or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers,to persons or organizations that may be able to effect action” (Near &Miceli, 1985). |
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Predictors of Whistle-Blowing |
National and cultural factors• Hofstede’s dimensions • National culture Organisational factors: Organisational culture Contextual factors• Severity/type of wrongdoing, Perpetrator characteristics• Individual differences• Moral beliefs and values Personality, moderately committed employees most likely tospeak up |
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How can organisations encouragewhistle-blowing? |
1. Create organisational policies 2. Establish clear reporting procedures 3. Respond to complaints swiftly and appropriately 4. Commit to ethical behaviour• Ensure that ethical behaviour is valued in the organisation |
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The Deaf Ear Syndrome |
Failing to respond appropriately to internal complaints (in this case,about sexual harassment) 1. Inadequate sexual harassment policies and procedures 2. Managerial reactions and rationalizations 3. Features of organisations prone to inaction |
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1. Examine the characteristics of deaf ear organisations 2. Foster management support and education 3. Stay vigilant 4. Take immediate action 5. Create a state of the art policy 6. Establish clear reporting procedures |
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What is an organisational crisis? |
“A situation that threatens the high quality goals of the organisation,restricts the amount of time available for response, and surprisesdecision-makers by its occurrence” |
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Causes of Crises (Seeger, Sellnow &Ulmer, 2003) |
Interactive complexity and normal accident theory, Failures in foresight, warning and risk perception, Breakdowns in decision-making and monitoring |
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Interactive complexity and normal accident theory |
• Crises are endemic among tightly coupled systems (e.g., BP oil platform!) where there is little slack and there is reduced ability for the system to minimise damage and recover. |
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Failures in foresight, warning and risk perception |
• Collective rationalisations, restricted perspectives, lack of communication of concerns, and a reduced ability to understand risk. • A universal feature of crises. |
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Breakdowns in decision-making and monitoring |
• Inadequate collection, processing and critique of information. • Normative group structures can encourage members to withhold criticism (i.e., groupthink). |
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Adverse Consequences of Crises(Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 2003) |
• Harm to stakeholders • Losses, downsizing or collapse post-crisis • Reputation damage and loss of trust • Legal ramifications • Loss of profitability, customers and market share • Consequences for employees include unemployment |
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Effective crises management includes |
To facilitate effective crisis management and long-term recoverythrough 1. Management of stakeholders. 2. Uncertainty reduction through communication. 3. Identifying opportunities for positive outcomes e.g., organisationallearning, latent problems are faced, new strategies |
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Typology of Crises |
Internal• Crisis originates within the organisationand affects it only External • Crisis originates outside of theorganisation and affects many similarorganisations Normal• Crisis is relatively predictable in timing, consequences. not uncommon Abnormal Crisis is rare and not predictable |
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Helpful thing in communication for a crisis |
Stakeholder protection is the firstpriority in a crisis. Inform them how to protect themselves. • Adapting information helps people to cope with the psychologicalthreat from the crisis. • Corrective actions reassure stakeholders reducing their psychological stress. • express of concern for the victims notnecessarily an admission of guilt. |
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First step in assessing the reputation threat with organisational crisis |
The first step in assessing the reputational threat is to determine theinitial crisis responsibility associated with the crisis. • What kind of crisis has occurred? and • Will the organisation be blamed for the crisis? |
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Second step in assessinghe reputation threat with organisational crisis |
The reputation threat involves crisishistory and prior relationship reputation. A history of previouscrises and poor prior relationship reputation both increase the initialassessment of the reputation threat. |
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Protecting Organisational Reputation: TheRole of Emotions (Coombs, 2007) |
Crisis responsibility can trigger emotional reactions fromstakeholders. f stakeholders believe that the organisation was responsible for thecrisis Stakeholder emotions can lead to:• “Bad-mouthing” • Reduced community support for the organisation• Reduced interaction with the organisation |
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What are the Crisis Types? |
Victim: • Weak attributions mild reputationthreat.• Like Natural disaster, Accidental: • Minimal attributions moderate reputationthreat.• Examples: Human error, Preventable: • Strong attributions severe reputationthreat.• Examples: Human error, accidents, organisational wrongdoing. |
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Crisis Response Strategies (Coombs,2007) Objectives |
Crisis response strategies objectives: 1. Shape attributions of the crisis; 2. Change perceptions of the organisation in crisis; and 3. Reduce the negative emotions generated by the crisis. Use any combination with goal of protecting organisational reputation |
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Crisis Response Strategies (Coombs,2007): Response strategies |
Primary Crisis Response Strategies • Deny • Diminish • Rebuild Secondary Crisis Response Strategies • Bolstering |
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Deny crisis response strategies |
Attempt to remove anyconnection between the organisation and the crisis. Attack the accuser: Denial: Crisis manager asserts that there is no crisis Scapegoat: Crisis manager blames some person or group outsideof the organisation |
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Rebuild crisis response strategies |
designed toimprove the organisation’s reputation by offeringmaterial and/or symbolic forms of assistance to victims. • Compensation: • Apology: |
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Bolstering response strategies |
• Reminder: Tell stakeholders about the past good works of theorganisation. • Ingratiation: Crisis manager praises stakeholders. • Victimage: Crisis managers remind stakeholders that theorganisation is a victim too • Used in conjunction with primary strategies |
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Crisis Response Strategy Guidelines(Coombs, 2007) |
Deny - for rumour andchallenge crises Diminish - low attributions of responsibility or victim, history of similar crises, and a neutral or positive prior relationship |
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Supportive communication |
Communicationthat enables people to communicate accuratelyand honestly without jeopardizing relationshipswith superiors, subordinates, peers or clients. |
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Social Cohesion |
Domain of causallyinterrelated phenomena concerned withindividuals’ membership attitudes andbehaviors |
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Social Support |
“Social support is generally measured by the actualinstrumental and emotional support received from others(e.g., family, friends, colleagues) as well as the perceptionthat support is available when needed” (Shantha et al.,2004) |
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Social support networks 4 distinctfunctions |
• 1) Instrumental • 2) Emotional support • 3) Companionship • 4) Informational support |
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Interpersonal competence |
The ability to work, understand, communicate,and motivate other people, both individuallyand in groups. |
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Emotional intelligence |
The ability to recogniseand regulate emotions both within the self and inothers |
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Coaching and Counselling |
Coaching: -Focuses on ability problems-E.g., “I can help you do this better”-Managers provides information for task/performance focus Counselling: -Focuses on attitude problems -“I can help you recognise that a problem exists”– Manager focuses on correcting problem attitudes, personality andemotions |
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Coaching and Counselling Problems |
A mismatch of problem with communication approach canaggravate, rather than resolve, a problem. And 2 barriers: - Defensiveness - Dis confirmation |
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Defensiveness |
If an individual feels threatened or punished bythe communication |
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Disconfirmation |
– If one of the communicating parties feels putdown, ineffectual or insignificant because of thecommunication |
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Eight Attributes of SupportiveCommunication |
1) Problem-oriented, not person oriented 2) Congruent, not incongruent 3) Descriptive, not evaluative 4) Validating, not invalidating 5) Specific, not global 6) Conjunctive, not disjunctive 7) Owned, not disowned 8) Supportive listening, no one-way listening |
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1.Problem-oriented, not people-oriented |
Problem-oriented communication should also belinked to accepted standards or expectations, ratherthan personal opinions Problem-oriented focuses on problems andsolutions, rather than personal traits to avoid defensiveness |
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2. Congruent, not incongruent |
What is communicated, verbally and nob-verbally, matcheswhat the person is thinking and feeling. Mismatch and be between what is experience and awareness or feeling and communicating |
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3.Descriptive, not evaluative |
Descriptive communication: objective description of event or behavior, describe reactions/consequences to behavior and suggest an acceptable alternative Evaluative statements lead to defensive reactions. |
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4. Validating, not invalidating |
Validating communication helps people feelrecognized, understood, accepted and valued. Egalitatian, as though equal Invalidating- negative to self worth/identity. Conveying superiority (communicator informed other ignorant) and rigidity (absolute, unquestionable) |
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5. Specific, not global |
the more specific a statement is, the moreuseful it is. Avoids extremes and absolutes |
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6. Conjunctive, not disjunctive |
Conjunctive communication – joined to previousmessage in some way, flows smoothly Disjunctive – disconnected from what was just stated: unequal opportunity to speak, topic control, extended pauses, "I'm not a racist, but" |
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7. Owned, not disowned |
Take responsibility for statements andacknowledge your ideas as your own (use I, me, mine) Disowning – communication attributed to anunknown person or group, or to someexternal source. "They" , "we think" |
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8. Supportive communication requires listening, not one waymessage delivery: |
Listening to how others are listening- determine if other understands 4 different listening response types: 1. Advising- provides direction, evaluation, personal opinion,instructions 2. Deflecting- the listener changes the subject 3. Probing- To acquire additional information 4. Reflecting- mirror the message |
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Benefits of supportive communication |
Decrease; Absenteeism, Turnover Increase; Job satisfaction - Productivity - Likelihood of positive client outcomes Improved: - Psychological/physical health - Effectiveness and motivation - Conflict management |
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Reasons to Hold a Meeting |
1. When a job is too much for one person to handle 2. When individuals can benefit from sharing ideas 3. When there is more than one decision or solutionavailable 4. When misunderstandings, concern or conflict arelikely |
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Meeting advantages and disadvantages |
Advantages: Enable collective enterprise, opportunity for questions/issues, allows ideas exchange, social facilitation Disadvantages: expensive, negative value, unnecessary, time consuming |
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Characteristics of effective meetings |
Provides information, clarity, exchange feedback, provide training, allow discussion, encoarage problem solving |
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Types of meetings |
Formal(with rules) Informal: info sharing, problem solving, goal setting, decision making. Committees: initiate policy/procedures for specific matter |
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Meeting roles |
Chairperson Secretary Members: - Task related - Maintenance related - Defensive and dysfunctional roles |
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Chair person roles |
Including appropriate people Maintaining focus Conducting meeting Ruling on points of order Following procedures Maintaining order |
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Secretary role |
Agendas documentation apologies correspondence and minutes |
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Member roles: Task, maintenance and defensive |
Task: Facilitate the achievement of a groups goal and focus on task such as reading minutes Maintenance: Support or encourage contributions. basically maintain positive atmosphere Defensive/dysfunctional: protect other members form anxiety such as scapegoat |
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Communication barriers (meetings) |
Cause by either poor leader or member skills. -personality types - Attitudes -Groupthink -Poor verbal/non verbal/listening skills |
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Power Definition |
is the potential to allocate resources and tomake and enforce decisions |
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Influence Definition |
Is the use of power. It is the mechanismthrough which people use power to change behavioursor attitudes |
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PersuasionDefinition |
Is the act of motivating an audience throughcommunication to voluntarily change a particular belief,attitude or behaviour |
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Power uses |
◦ Determine compensation for employees ◦ Obtain funding, materials or staff for key projects ◦ Gain access to important information◦ Resolve disputes ◦ Clear away barriers to progress ◦ Determine key goals and marshal resources around them |
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Power can be divided into |
Personal and Positional power |
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Sources of Personal Power (EPEL) |
Expertise: Task relevant knowledge or experience. Personal attraction: Desirable characteristics associated with friendship Effort: Higher than expected commitment of time Legitimacy: Behaviour consistent with key organizational values |
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Sources of Position Power (CCFVR) |
Centrality: Access to information in a communication network Criticality: Impact on tasks in workflow Flexibility: discretion vested in a position Visibility: degree to which task performance is seen byinfluential people in the organization Relevance:The alignment of assigned tasks and organizationalpriorities |
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Influence Strategies: the three R's |
Retribution - Intimidation (pressure) Reciprocity-Bargaining/exchange(obligating) Reason - Using persuasive arguments |
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Retribution |
Based on personal threat Coercive or intimidating influence General form: Threat When to use: Sparingly, time constraints, you have more power Advantages: =immediate/accurate action Disadvantages: Resentment, alienation, reduces initiative/innovation |
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Reciprocity |
General form: Promise Bases: mutual exchange, bargaining or favors When: Each party has some control, established rule of translation, mutual trust Advantages: Little resentment, no need for justification, generates a equal reward expectation Disadvantage: Breeds entilement |
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Reason |
General Form: Evidence When: Shared understanding, reference frame, good relation, shared identity, expert power Advantages: No coercion or reciprocate Disadvantages: Considerable time to build trust and requires commongoals/identity/values |
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Neutralizing Inapproptiate Influences |
Retribution:Emphasis your mutual dependence Reciprocity : Examine the intent/motivation behind any gift or favorsyou are offered Reason: Explain your concerns: Defend your rights and obligationto manage your time and resources |
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Persuasion |
Persuasion is the act of motivating anaudience through communication tovoluntarily change a particular belief, attitudeor behaviour |
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What makes a message persuasive? |
Source factors Message characteristics Receiver factors Contextual factors |
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Theories of Persuasion |
Social judgment theory (Sherif & Hovland, 1961) Theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen 1985; 1991) Elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo,1986) |
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Social judgment theory |
1) Individuals judge a message in terms of whetherit conforms to their own attitudes on the subject. 2) Individuals’ views of how important a topic is tothem affects how willing they are to change theirattitudes (ego-involvement). High ego involv= less likely to change Persuasion then falls into one of 3 latitudes |
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Social judgment theory Key terms |
Attitude◦ -A positive or negative feeling about something orsomeone Opinion◦ -A position on something or someone Beliefs◦ - belief on what is true or right Anchor◦ -A reference point with which we compare persons,issues, products, positions that we encounter |
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Social judgment theory Latitudes |
A persuasion directed to an individual will fallinto one of these latitudes (‘areas’): Latitude of acceptance (assimilation effect)->overestimate the similarity Latitude of non-commitment (indifference) Latitude of rejection (contrast effect)->overestimate the difference |
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Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) |
Behavior = personal attitudes + subjective norms Behavior changes if attitude or norm changes or relative weighting of two changes Implications: persuasion must take context into account |
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Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) |
In addition to attitudes and social norms, perceivedbehavioral control also impacts behavioral intentions. Attitudes + Norms + Perceived control = Intention = Behavior |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) |
Individuals can differin how carefully and extensively they think about amessage and the position, object or behavior it isadvocating Elaboration: Engagement in issue-relevant thinking (Dual processingapproach) Includes Central and Peripheral Route |
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Central and Peripheral Route |
◦ Central route – great deal of thought, scrutiny and evaluation ofmessage/ideas. ◦ Peripheral route – subjective evaluation of message characteristics(e.g. personal liking of message) |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Factors affecting Elaboration |
◦ Motivation: Personal relevance (is the issue important to you?) Need for cognition (do you intrinsically enjoy thinking about theissue?) ◦ Ability: Distraction (e.g. time pressure) Prior knowledge (do you have background knowledge to assessthe message?) ◦ Valence and heuristics |
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Source Factors |
a) Charisma b) Authority c) Credibility d) Social attractiveness ◦ Likeability ◦ Similarity ◦ Physical attractiveness |
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Charisma |
A certain quality of an individual personality,by virtue of which one is 'set apart' fromordinary people and treated as endowed withsupernatural, superhuman or at leastspecifically exceptional powers or qualities” |
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Authority |
From an early age, we are socialised to obeyindividuals in positions of authority. People often comply with authority figures toreceive rewards or avoid punishment. |
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Credibility |
Expertise Trustworthiness Goodwill |
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Social Attractiveness |
Physical attractiveness, likeability and socialsimilarity When a source is attractive, we are morelikely to pay attention to the message greater persuasion |
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Message Characteristics |
Message structure◦ 2-sided messages influence attitudes more than 1-sided messages, provided that the message refutesopposition arguments Foot in the door or door in the face Message content: clear conclusions, supportive evidence |
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Receiver Factors |
Natural receiver characteristics◦ General persuasibility◦ Gender differences◦ Individual differences Induced receiver factors◦ Inoculation◦ Warning◦ Refusal skills training |
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Contextual Factors |
Primacy-recency◦ There are some intrinsic advantage to be the first (primacy effect) or lastspeaker (recency effect) Medium◦ Media choice (week 4 lecture) The persistence of persuasion: Message effects often decay over time but last longer if result of thoughtful consideration |
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Key Informal communication Definitions |
Gossip = evaluative small talk Urban legends = stories Rumor = making sense |
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Gossip |
An evaluative social talk aboutindividuals, usually notpresent, that arises in thecontext of social networkformation, change andmaintenance-that is, in thecontext of building groupsolidarity |
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Functions of Gossip |
Gossip can regulate and resist the implicit demands fororganisational citizenship/ Deviance. Identity building at work Social network formation and maintenance Social Entertainment In/out group desticion Enforces norms and social functioniong |
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Urban Legends |
“Stories of unusual, humorous or horrible events thatcontain themes related to the modern world; are told assomething that did or may have happened, variations ofwhich are found in numerous places and times; andcontain moral implications” Functions:◦ Entertainment◦ Propagate morals and values |
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Rumors |
“Unverified and instrumentally relevantinformation statements in circulation that arisein contexts of ambiguity, danger or potentialthreat and that function to help people makesense and manage risk” Arises in ambiguous/ threatening situations to make sense of/ manage threat |
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Types of rumors in Organisations |
Turnover (policy or personnel changes), Pecking-Order changes, Job Security or Job Quality, Costly Error, Consumer Concern |
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Rumors and Urban Legend differences |
Urban legends do not pertain to a particularsituation as are rumors Rumors are not amusing and not entertaining Differ in structure-legends tend to be shorterwhile rumors have narrative elements Legends are rumors that are updated |
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Rumor and Gossip Three major differences |
◦ Rumour is not based on solid evidence, wile gossip might be ◦ Rumour is typically about a topic of importance ◦ Gossip always about privatelives of individuals |
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Social Consequences of Rumors |
Riots, repression and racial tensions |
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Four Theories of the process of Rumor transmission |
1) The basic law of rumour (Allport & Postman, 1947) 2) Beyond the basic law of rumour (Rosnow , 1991) 3) A conversational approach (Guerin & Miyazaki,2006) 4) A motivational approach (DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007) |
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The basic law of rumour |
The basic law of rumour (R): R = i x ai = Importancea = Ambiguity The amount of rumour in circulation will varywith the importance of the subject to theindividuals concerned multiplied by theambiguity of the evidence pertaining to thetopic at issue. |
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2) Beyond the basic law of rumour (Rosnow , 1991) |
Rumor generation and transmission resultsfrom an optimal combination of: (1) Personal anxiety (2) General uncertainty (3) Credulity (4) Outcome-relevant involvement |
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3) A conversational approach (Guerin & Miyazaki,2006) |
Rumours are told because their anxiety-provokingand ambiguous properties make for goodconversations. Conversational properties of rumours that appealto listeners include:◦ a) Interest and consequence◦ b) Difficult to dismiss immediately; credible◦ c) Attention-grabbing; novel |
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4) A motivational approach (DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007) |
Rumour transmission is motivated by three broadpsychological needs: 1. to act or copeeffectively (fact finding). 2. The need to develop and sustain socialrelationships 3. The need to further material and psychologicalneeds of the self motivates self-enhancementstrategies (self-gain) |
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(DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007) rumor belief |
◦ (1) accords with the hearer’s attitude◦ (2) comes from a credible source◦ (3) is heard repeatedly◦ (4) is not rebutted |
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(DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007) Rumor content change |
1. Leveling–Loss of detail and reduction in length at each successivetransmission 2. Adding–Addition to content (“snowballing”) 3. Sharpening–Accenting and highlighting of certain details 4. Assimilation–Shaping of content (through levelling, adding, and sharpening)so as to be in greater accord with personal cognitive schemas |
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Rumor management |
Reining/preventing rumors Neutralizing rumors |
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Reining/preventing rumors |
Reduce generation ◦ Explain the unexplained ◦ Dispel anxiety ◦ Anticipate rumours Reduce credulity ◦ Hold a workshop ◦ Establish trust Reduce dissemination |
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Neutralising Rumours |
1. Ignore impotent rumours 2. Confirm the truth 3. Do comment 4. Refute effectively |
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1. Ignore impotent rumours |
◦ Managers should determine whether a rumour is likelyto be believed, and should not pay attention to frivolous,implausible rumours.◦ This approach should only be used when there are noqueries to management about the rumours and mangersare confident that the rumour will “die on its own”. |
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2. Confirm the truth |
◦ Clearly stating to employees the part of a rumour that istrue is likely to reduce rumour generation anddissemination. |
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3. Do comment |
◦ Failing to comment on a rumour is likely to give it morecredence and add to uncertainty. Therefore managersshould find a way to address rumours, e.g., by ridiculingthe rumour or challenging the source’s credibility. |
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4. Refute effectively |
◦ Base them on the truth ◦ everything organisation says is consistent ◦ Select the appropriate spokesperson ◦ Denials should be easy to understand ◦ Don’t repeat the rumor ◦ Hold town meetings |
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Trust |
The willingnessto be vulnerablebecause aperson thinkssomeone has hisor her bestinterests at heart. “The belief in the integrity, character, andability of a leader.” Reciprocal faith |
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Trust and Rumors |
Trust is a key variable in rumour transmissionand is likely to play a central role inorganisational rumour activity (DiFonzo & Bordia, 2007) Low trust make rumors spread faster |
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Benifits of trust |
Production of high-quality goods andservices More satisfied employees who enjoy greaterautonomy Greater risk-taking and innovation More organisational citizenship behaviour Increased procedural justice |
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Levels of trust repair after organisational level failure |
Stage 1: Immediate responses Stage 2: Diagnosis Stage 3: Reforming interventions Stage 4: Evaluation |
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Stage 1: Immediate responses |
Verbal: acknowledge the incident, express regret, announcea full investigation and commit resources to prevent areoccurrenceAction: interventions against known causes |
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Stage 2: Diagnosis |
Accurate (systematic and multilevel)Timely and transparent |
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Stage 3: Reforming interventions |
Verbal: apologise (subject to culpability) and makereparations as appropriateAction: derived from diagnosis, full implementation, andprioritization of mechanisms according to failure type |
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Stage 4: Evaluation |
Accurate (systematic and multilevel)Timely and transparent |
