Memory

Front 1

Name the sensory inputs and where they're stored.

Back 1

Auditory-echoic store

Visual- iconic store

Tactile- haptic store

Taste- gustatory store

Smell- olfactory store

Front 2

Outline Peterson and Peterson 1959 study

Back 2

Controlled study to see how information is stored in STM when it's not vocally repeated. 24 students were given different trigrams to remember at different intervals(3,6,9,12,15,18) and recall them. 90% were remembered at 3 sec, 20% at 9 sec and 2% at 18 sec.

Front 3

Outline Jacob's 1887 study

Back 3

Determined the capacity of STM using the serial digit span. Participants were presented with a series of numbers/ letters and asked to repeat them in the correct order. Each time another digit or letter was added until a participant reached their digit span (correct 50% of the time). On average the digit span was 9.3 and the average letter span was 7.3. He believed this was because we learn to chunk information over time. Capacity of STM was 7+/-2 items.

Front 4

Outline Baddeleys 1966 study

Back 4

Used semantically and acoustically similar and dissimilar lists to determine how STM and LTM coded information. Participants had to recall information both immediately after learning the lists then 20 minutes later. It was found that for STM coding was better with the acoustically dissimilar list and LTM was best with semantically dissimilar words.

Front 5

Outline Bahrick et al 1975 study

Back 5

Determined the duration of LTM and how recognition and recall affected duration. They tracked down American graduates from the same high school and tested their recognition and recall of fellow students over 50 years after graduation. Recognition tests found that 90% were correct after 14 years, 80% after 25, 75% after 34, 60% after 47. Recall tests found that 60% was accurate after 7 years and less than 20% was accurate after 47 years. Recognition was easier to remember in LTM than recall was.

Front 6

Outline Milners HM case study

Back 6

HM had severe epilepsy which was incapacitating. He had a bilateral medical temporal lobe resection and after the surgery he had severe amnesia and couldn't remember events in his LTM up to 11 years before the fall.

Front 7

Describe the Atkinson and shiffren multi store model 1968

Back 7

The msm illustrates memory as a process which flows through seperate stores. Information is passed from store to store in a linear way. Information enters through sense organs and initially travels to sensory memory. Once at sensory register it travels to STM if attention is paid is not information is 'lost'. This information can be held for 20-30 seconds and hold 7+/-2 items. If rehearsed information can then be passed to LTM. Information here is coded semantically and can hold unlimited amounts of information. However if information is interfered with it can be forgotten or lost from all memory systems.

Front 8

Evaluate the multi store model

Back 8

Strengths: shows how each store affects each other, shows why certain things are easily remembered, supported by primary and recency effect, ecologically valid. Weaknesses: over simplified, too generic, doesn't explain flash bulb memories and lacks ecological validity as conducted in a laboratory.

Front 9

Features of sensory register

Back 9

Coded using senses from different stores. Large capacity and limited duration of a few seconds. Duration decreases with age. Coding is studied by Crowder 1993, capacity by sperling 1960 and duration by Walsh and Thompson 1978.

Front 10

What is short term memory?

Back 10

The capacity for holding 5-9 items of information in an active, available state for about 18-30 seconds mainly using acoustic coding.

Front 11

What is long term memory?

Back 11

The capacity for holding unlimited amounts of information for up to a lifetime and is coded semantically.

Front 12

Outline the key features of Baddeley and Hitches working memory model

Back 12

All information is stored within the central executive but because the CE has limited capacity many things cannot be remembered at once. Three slave systems connect to the CE: phonological loop, episodic buffer and the visuo- spatial sketchpad. The phonological loop contains the phonological store and the articulatory system. The phonological store can hold data for 1.5-2 seconds before it is lost and the articulatory system rehearses information to maintain it. The visuo- spatial sketchpad also holds information about how something looks and the relationship between things. The episodic buffer was added in 2000 and is a general store which links to LTM. WMM is used when working out a complex task which requires information to be stored as you go along.

Front 13

Evaluate WMM as a model of human memory

Back 13

One strength of the WMM is that there is research to support it. EG Shallice and Warrington 1974 KF study supports the slave systems within WMM as it indicates that there are different stores for different forms of information. Ie phonological store holds speech based information. Therefore WMM can be trusted as a representation of human memory. The Baddeley and Hitch dual task experiment illustrates that performance was slower if multiple stores were used. In addition to this the Bunge 2000 experiment illustrates that dual tasks lead to more brain activation in a FMRI. This highlights the idea that using the same store to recall multiple pieces of information will cause more brain activation leading to slower performances. One limitation of WMM is that there is little evidence to support it as we are unable to isolate the central executive from slave stores as a separate variable. Therefore WMM may not be a comprehensive representation of human memory. Contradictory evidence against the WMM highlights that ad case studies rely on participants with brain damage it becomes difficult to generalise the findings for people with 'normal' brains causing a lack of ecological validity.

Front 14

Describe tulvings 1989 study

Back 14

He injected himself with particles of radioactive gold so he could track brain blood flow in a scanner. He scanned his brain while thinking about historical facts and childhood experiences and found that historical facts increased the amount of blood flow to the back of the brain whilst remembering childhood experiences blood flow increased towards the front of the brain. Issues with this study was that the gold may have harmed him, it was only tested once and there was no evidence from elsewhere.

Front 15

Describe Heindel et al study

Back 15

Investigated how Huntingtons disease affected procedural memory and found that patients had no problems learning new facts and had knowledge but had severe issues learning new motor skills. Issues with this study is that it's unclear if procedural memory is affected physically or mentally(memory may be intact).

Front 16

Distinguish between procedural and semantic memory

Back 16

Procedural is knowing how whereas semantic is knowing that. Semantic memories are conscious whereas procedural memories are less so. Procedural is non declarative whereas semantic is declarative and mainly expressed using words.

Front 17

Define two types of memory and explain a difference between the two.

Back 17

Episodic memory is remembering a conversation from previously. Procedural memory is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things such as ride a bike. These bodily memories are able to be consciously brought to mind whereas procedural memories are mainly unconscious.

Front 18

Give one example of a Semantic memory and one example of an episodic memory. Briefly explain the difference between the two

Back 18

An example of a semantic memory includes knowing how to structure a psychology essay whereas episodic memory is remembering who we spent Christmas with last year. We can recall where episodic memories are learnt but we cannot easily recall where semantic memories are learnt.

Front 19

What is 'memory after meaning'?

Back 19

Frederick Barlett 1932 theorised that there are two types of distorted memory. How we interpret new memories using old information and recalling a memory using new information.

Front 20

What's the difference between different types of interference?

Back 20

Proactive interference refers to how new memories are interpreted using old information. Retroactive interference refers to how old memories are interpreted using new information.

Front 21

Outline Underwood and Postmans 1960 study.

Back 21

Conducted a study which supported retroactive interference in a laboratory experiment. Two groups were given lists of paired words. Group one was asked to learn and recall list one whilst group two was asked to learn two lists and recall the initial list. They found that recall was best in group one the control group.

Front 22

Outline Underwood 1957 study

Back 22

Looked at how time affected memory by looking at the results of studies over a 24h period. He found that those who learnt 15+ lists recalled the last list at 20% whilst those who learnt one list recalled it at 80%.

Front 23

Evaluate interference using studies

Back 23

One strength of retroactive interference from Underwood and Postmans study is that it has high levels of control ensuring reliability making replication easy. However as the study was conducted in a laboratory there is little ecological validity and as the participants were partaking in an overt observation they may have used demand characteristics to meet expectations. Underwoods 1956 Proactive interference study had high ecological validity as people often try remember previous events I'm really life making the findings easy to apply to real life settings.

Front 24

Explain the different types of cue dependant forgetting

Back 24

Context dependant occurs when environmental cues that were present when learning took place are absent when the information is recalled. State dependant occurs if the emotional state we're in when learning the information is not present when recalling information.

Front 25

Outline Godden and Baddeleys 1975 study

Back 25

Determined how environmental cues affected recall. Deep sea divers were given a list of words to learn either on land or in water. They then had to recall the words either in the same context or a different one. 30% more was recalled when the lists were recalled in the same context.

Front 26

Evaluate Godden and Baddeley 1975 study

Back 26

One advantage of this field experiment is that it has high ecological validity as its conducted in a natural setting making it easier to apply the data to real life situations. Comparatively as the case uses extreme conditioning it may not be representative of normal human memory.

Front 27

Describe misleading information

Back 27

An incorrect suggestion that something happened that didn't using retroactive interference. This can lead to people being taken advantage of.

Front 28

Outline Bartletts 1932 theory

Back 28

Bartlett believed that memory is not a direct record of what was witnessed. What is stored and how it is retrieved depends on interpretation/ schemas and post event information.

Front 29

Outline loftus and Palmers 1974 study

Back 29

45 American students were placed in an independent measures design experiment and separated into 5 groups. Each group was shown a clip of a car crash and were asked to recall the speed of the car. Each group were asked with a different verb. Contacted had an estimated speed of 31mph while smashed had an estimated speed of 41mph. They concluded that wording of questions can affect testimony.

Front 30

Evaluate loftus and Palmers 1974 study

Back 30

Strengths: high levels of control, high levels of internal validity and had objective results. Weaknesses: lacks ecological validity and bias sample.

Front 31

Describe Yerkes-Dodson law

Back 31

Memory is most effective at moderate arousal levels. If the witness was in a state of extremely high or low arousal then recall will be low.

Front 32

Outline Johnson and Scott's 1976 study

Back 32

Researched how a participants emotional state affected recall by placing participants into a low anxiety or high anxiety condition. The low anxiety group witnessed a man with a greasy pen whilst the high anxiety group witnessed a man with a paper knife covered in blood. Both groups over heard the same argument. Those in low anxiety identified him correctly 49% whilst high anxiety identified him correctly 33%.

Front 33

Outline Yuille and Cutshall's 1986 study.

Back 33

Interviewed witnesses if a shooting in a gun shop 4-5 months after the incident. There was little change in the accuracy of the account however those who reported the most amount of stress recalled 88% more details compared to 75% for the less stressed group.

Front 34

Name the memory retrieval rules used in a cognitive interview

Back 34

Context reinstatement

Order of events changed

Details of what was seen are fully reported

Perspectives are changed

Front 35

Who developed the cognitive interview?

Back 35

Geiselman et al in 1985

Front 36

Evaluate cognitive interview techniques

Back 36

Strength: supported by research

Weaknesses: costly for training, lots of effort is needed for training, individual differences such as ages can affect the reliability of CIT

Front 37

Outline Geisman 1988 study

Back 37

89 students were shown police training videos and were interviewed using either CIT or standard techniques. Recall of correct items was significantly higher I'm CIT interviews indicating it was a better technique.

Front 38

Evaluate Geiselman's 1988 study

Back 38

As it was conducted in a laboratory there were few extraneous variables increasing internal validity and control. However the study had little ecological validity as a video is not a realistic representation of a real life incident. In addition to this the study may have been bias as it was only tested on students.

Front 39

Outline Fisher et al 1989 study

Back 39

A group of detectives in Florida, USA were trained in using CIT and then their interviews with real life witnessed were observed. They found a 47% increase in information produced by witnesses compared to pre training levels. CIT seems to produce more information than a standard interview technique.