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117 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what do life histories include? |
reproductive patterns, larval ecology, and migratory patterns |
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what components compete for resources in organisms? |
maintenance==>somatic growth==> reproduction |
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how is an optimal reproductive strategy selected |
profit gained by allocating resources to current reproduction vs. saving some energy for future reproduction |
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what are some life-history traits that serve as strategies |
clutch size generation time age of initial reproduction number of clutches investment in offspring (egg size, brooding guarding, yolk present, etc) |
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what are the issues with size? |
larger size tends to equal more gametes while cost of maintenance of metabolism increases with body size, determinate vs. indeterminate growth |
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surplus energy could be put towards gamete output. what is the issue with optimal size |
continue growth or stop? reproduce until get to optimal size |
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what factors may change the optimal body size |
predation susceptibility intraspecific competition mating advantage |
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what are the modes of sexuality |
asexual monoecious (hermaphroditism) dioecious (separate sexes) |
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adv. and disad. of asexual |
adv. -successful genotype proliferates -don't need adaptations for gamete union dis. -identical genotype |
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asexual types |
binary fission-single cells fragmentation-"budding", pieces break off and form new individuals parthenogenesis-unfertilized eggs develop via gametogenesis vegetative reprodcution-division of one animal into multiple ones |
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types of hermaphroditism |
simultaneous- has both types of gonads at same time, can reproduce with any other individual of species sequential-individual reproduces more efficiently as one sex when small, but changes gender when older/larger, male than female (protandry) or female than male (protogyny) |
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adavantages of monoecious reproduction |
density advantage in sedentary organisms (neighbors available for mating), are sequential but cyclical. most mobile animals are permanent sequential size advantage(size threshold for being female, since male gametes are cheaper but large males can outcompete other males ) |
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what mechanism control hermaphroditism |
behavioral social control sex ratio threshold hypothesis hormonal mechanisms genetic mechanisms |
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advantages and disadvantages of dioecious |
adv. -genetic variation dis -adaptations needed to ensure gamete formation |
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mechanisms for gamete transfer |
egg and sperm shed to water for external fertilization sperm shed to water but fertilizes eggs internally within female copulatory organ/gonopore allows mechanical transfer of male gametes to female or laid eggs |
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what is sexual dimorphism and how is it often represented |
determined by sex chromosome vs. environment, morphological (body size and structures, copulatory organs), secondary sexual characteristics(coloration, behavioral, mate attraction) |
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how is reproduciton timed |
correlates with seasonal changes through temperature (timing of spawning) or lunar cycle (tidal cycle, simultaneous spawning, larval transport), critical temperature often induces spawning, phytoplankton are also seasonal through light and nutrients |
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fish lifecycle? |
egg (demersal or pelagic) larval stages -yolk-sac -preflexion -flexion -postflexion settler (post-settlement larva and postlarva) juvenile |
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methods of oviparious reproductions |
pelagic (broadcast spawning) spawning demersal spawning egg scattering benthic broadcasting brooding |
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Generalizations of larger eggs, larvae, and longer mobile phase |
egg -longer embryonic development -higher yolk concentration -advanced at hatching -smaller clutch size larvae -at risk to predation -transport in currents, higher mortality longer mobile phase -dispersal ability increased |
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three types of larval development |
planktotrophic lecithotrophic direct development |
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define planktotrophic development |
production of many small eggs with small yolk reserves per egg which hatch out into free swimming larvae in the plankton, larvae feed and develop in the plankton until undergo metamorphosis released as planktonic gametes from egg cases or broods time to metamorphosis in the genetic program and require suitable substratum to trigger it |
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trade-offs and advantages of planktotorphic development |
risk of mortality in plankton vs. benefit of dispersal adv. -large number of young can be produced with a given amount of energy -geographic range of larva increased |
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define facultative planktotrophy |
similar to planktotrophy only larva do not need to feed in order to develop and metamorphosize feeding results in faster development and larger juveniles larval development becomes short while metamorphosis is delayed if no suitable substrate is found not dependent on the plankton for food and short larval period reduces risk of being eaten |
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define lecithotrophic development and how is it advantageous |
short planktonic stage with large egg yolk and does not feed in plankton, does not typically allow for long distance dispersal adv. -less time in the plankton and not depended on it for food -settle in appropriate habitats near parent dis. -less dispersal capabilities, only few offspring are produced |
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advantages and disadvantages of direct development (egg cases) |
dis. little dispersal of young (restricted gene flow) adv. -lower rate of larval morality -suitable environment |
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advantages and disadvantages of direct development (brooding) |
dis -restricted gene flow (little dispersal) -fewer eggs adv. -suitable environment -lower rate of early mortality |
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define dispersal hypothesis for larval development |
limited to postlarval dispersal so pelagic eggs or larvae disperse cheap means of dispersal via currents colder water slows metabolism increases larval mortality but is offset by large numbers of offspring |
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what is settlement success dependent on |
colonizing ability (competence) suitable habitat |
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define size-threshold-for reproduction hypothesis for larval development |
lecitho- or direct -body size of parent large enough to ensure a sufficient energy reserve to produce suffcient numbers of larvae (must attain the threshold size for large eggs) plankto -need may propagules to be feasible -small organisms unable to make large enough number of eggs |
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define energy-subsidy hypothesis for larval development |
phytoplankton blooms used to subzidize energy investment by parent less energy invested in each larva then supplemented by feeding |
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define food-niche hypothesis for larval development |
early stages exploit different food resources to avoid competition with parent |
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environmental constraints hypothesis for larval development |
higher latitudes= more brooding lower= more plankto. deeper=more brooding; issue disputed
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how does reproductive effort relate to semel. vs. itero. strategies |
total lifetime reproducitve effort greater in semelparous instantaneous reproductive effort increases in iteroparous with increased age and decreased life expectancy |
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issues for pelagic larvae before settling |
food shortage in plankton (bad years) transport to wrong habitat, countered by slective swimming behavior and settlement cues |
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issues for pelagic larvae after settling |
predation on larvae avoidance of crowding (space and food shortages) |
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what is substatum selection |
cues and steps that a free-living larva goes through to elicit metamorphosis of larvae on the substratum -physical characteristics of the substratum -presence of adults of same species -contact with substance contact with biological substratum feature look at diagram |
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advantages of migrations |
active migration back to spawning grounds, reduces competition between adults and juveniles, allows reproduction and feeding at suitable locations |
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types of migrating fish |
anadromous -most of time in sea and return to freshwater to breed catadromous -adult in freshwater then migrate to sea to reproduce oceanodromous -live and migrate in the ocean |
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what are the most productive communities |
estuaries upwelling coastal zones coral reefs |
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what sustains areas of high primary productivity |
high concentrations of nutrient-rich water rapid cycling of materials by decomposers sustained high numbers of organisms |
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how can dissolved organic matter be used for food |
active uptake from water (against concentration gradient) symbiosis fluid uptake by mouth |
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examples of symbiosis |
corals with zooxanthellae giant clams with zooxanthellae pogonophorans and clams with sulfur bacteria (hydrothermal vents) |
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how can fluid uptake of doc by mouth occur |
parasitic copepods leeches mammal young |
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how can organic particulates be consumed |
pseudopods-engulf small food particles suspension feeders-filter out small particles deposit feeders-ingest sediment with small organic particles raptorial-"large particles", hunting |
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methods of particle capture |
sieving direct interception inertial impaction motile particle deposition gravitational deposition |
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what are some suspension feeders |
barnacles-setae actively sieve larvaceans-gelatinous house used to filter water fish-gill rakers whales-baleen bivalves-ctenidia with cilia |
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how is food selected for filter feeders |
size-can't be too big or too small feeding rate- particle number before and after feeding particle concentration- if too high, filters can be clogged |
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food for filter feeders |
phytoplankton, suspended bacteria, microorganisms on particles, resuspended particles and their microbiota, detritus, maybe DOM? |
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types of deposit feeders |
sea cucumbers yoldia (bivalve)-use palps spionid polycheats-use palps macoma bivalves-vacuum with siphons capitellid & maldanid polychaetes-ingest particles, fresh sink abarenicola-excavates water filled pocket |
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modes of feeding for deposit feeders |
swallowers tentacle feeders surface siphon feeders setose deposit feeders |
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what do deposit feeders eat |
digest and assimilate microbial organisms attached and among particles, assimilation low due to indigestible material |
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what affects feeding rate in deposit feeders |
food quality degree of starvation fraction available for feeding population density |
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what is coprophay |
invertebrate fecal material, important in benthic communites with lower nutritional value but readily available |
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what are some herbivore browsers |
graze on algae or grasses scrapers and chompers wood feeders cellulose feeders symbiotic autotrophs |
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limitations to carnivores and scavengers |
prey size dependent on predator size (too big vs. too small to manipulate) may only use a portion of prey` |
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components of predation cycle |
search (time) encounter (Y/N) pursuit (time) capture (probability) handling (time, effort) |
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what does the predation cycle represent |
different costs and gains, allows variation in each component for strategy |
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what does rate of acquiring food depend on |
food availability consumer ability |
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types of response of predator populations to prey density |
functional-increases in prey, feeding rate increase to satiation numerical-increases in prey, increases in predator number developmental-get larger size with more food |
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types of functinoal responses |
1-linear to satiation 2-consumption increase at decelerating rate (common) 3-initially rate of consumption increases then decelerating (sigmoid) |
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components of functional response, prey density |
time searching -relative mobility -size of perceptual field -search image pursuing and handling -pursue and subdue -successful attacks -time spend eating -time spent digesting degree of hunger -rate of digestion and assimilation -capacity of gut -prey size vs stomach volume inhibition of predation by prey -behavior -morphological adaptations (mimicry, spines, etc.) |
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batesian mimcry |
harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species |
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mullerian mimcry |
two or more harmful species, that are not closely related and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals |
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componenets of functional response, predator density |
social faciliation avoidance learning intensity of exploitation interference among predators |
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components of numerical response |
aggregation-move to areas with food increased fecundity-more young with more food increased survivorship-more food=longer lived |
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components of developmental response |
eat more==>grow larger partitioning of energy from food aspect of phenotypic plasticity |
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factors affecting food selection |
prey size chemical composition (palatability) toughness energy maximizing vs. time minimizing strategy (optimal foraging theory) |
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prey switiching |
use of mulple prey species prey on most profitable, follow search image, then next most profitable, and so on optimal foraging theory |
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demersal |
temporarily associated with the bottom, often move away from bottom |
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what substrate are most marine species found |
firm substrates (rocks, corals, reefs) |
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infauna |
animals that live within the sediment |
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epifauna |
live on or at sediment surface, mobile epifauna may enter water colum |
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how are some epifauna permanently attached |
holdfasts (seaweeds) roots (crinoids, grasses) cements (oysters, barnacles) |
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how are some epifauan attached but can relocate |
pedal disk (anemones) byssal threads (mussels) cirri (feather stars) |
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what type of adaptations are important for epifauna |
those that avoid or minimize water turbulence (wave activity) (short/low profile, hiding, rigid bodies, structures to reduce shear stress) |
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how do bivalves penetrate the sediment |
penetration or terminal anchor |
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what are the steps for terminal anchor |
probe sediment, thrust foot into it, right shell, close siphons, terminal anchor dilation, pull animal down |
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why is burrowing and tube building important |
helps consolidate sediment |
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how are infauna that don't build tubes or burrows importatn |
reworking the sediment |
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what are some antipredator defenses |
mechanical-spines, barbs chemcial-produced or sequestered coloration-cryptic, aposematic (warning) escape behavior |
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benthic sizes |
microfauna (1-100 um, live on sediment grains) meiofauna(100-500 um, live between sediment grains) macrofauna (>500 um bigger than sediment grains) |
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factors that can affect distribution in soft substrata |
abiotic-grain size, DO, DOC,POC, light, oxidation-reduction state biotic-food availability, predation, species composistion, dispersal and recruitment, behavior |
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bigenic sorting |
sorting of particles by range of sizes in sediment by organisms, reworking sediments |
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trophic group amensalism |
activity of animals belonging to one trophic group prevents colonization by members of the other |
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bioturbation and burrowing affect what |
rate of exchange of dissolved/absorbed ions, compounds, gases vertical gradients in Eh, pH, pO2, RPD transfer reduced compounds to aerated sediments cycling of c, n, s, p |
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redox potential discontinuity (RPD) |
balance between processes which supply DO to surface sediments and those which remove it, reflects and results from interactions with biota and abiota, measured through Eh in mV (tendency of a chemical species to acquire elections and thereby be reduced) |
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effects of benthic organisms on sediments |
grain size (compaction into fecal pellets, consolidation of particles) water content (increases whth burrowing) resuspension of sediments (increases flocculent layer) microtopography (mounds, cones, burrows) reworking and biogenic sedimentation |
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hydrological changes |
altered water movement, but system is not completely destroyed |
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reclamation |
draining or filling estuary or wetland to dry land |
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what are problems caused by dredging |
short term degradation of organisms changes in channel profile can change tidal area, wave height, etc exposes anaerobic sedimonts smother existing habitats |
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bulk heading and groins |
-retaining wall or barrier -human-built structures put at a right angle to the shoreline to prevent the erosion, deposition, and weathering of the shore |
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effect of dams |
block movements of migratory organisms change the timing of water discharge, affecting life histories |
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important fisheries |
clupeids gadoids coastal fishes anadromous fish flatfishes top pelagic predators shellfish crustaceans |
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maximum sustainable yield |
largest average catch that can be continuously taken under prevailing experimental conditions |
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surplus production |
amount of biomass in fishery not necessary for sustainability |
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fisheries paradigm |
never know where the overfishing line is until you have overfished |
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overfishing |
rate of removal is too high for population to replenish |
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overfished |
too low or below a certain threshold recruitment= adults depleted to a level of reduced reporduction growth= caught at a size vefore they are able to contribute to MY per recruit |
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fishing down the food web |
predatory fish are selectively removed from the ocean, people must increasingly rely on lower trophic level species for food |
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bycatch and ghost fishing |
-organisms caught unintentionally while fishing -discarded or lost fishing gear that continue to catch organisms |
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fisheries management |
protect a portion of the population protect fish habitat protect the fishery Magnum-Stevenson Act |
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what makes a good invasive species |
opportunistic, generalist fast growing reproduce reapidly no natural predators aggressive competitors |
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effects of invasive species |
displace native speices reduce/degrade habitat alter ecosystem processes |
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enrichment |
addition of naturally occurring substances or heat to higher than normal levels that lead to changes in the structure or metabolism of the ecosystem |
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eutrophication |
enrichment that occurs from high levels of inorganic nutrients (N, P), leads to algal blooms and increased turbidity and hypoxia |
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thermal pollution |
adding warm water(power plant cooling intakes), leads to encrichment, thermal shock |
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pollutant contaminant |
measurable disorder with or without causing measurable disorder |
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allochthonous autochthonous anthropogenic |
external source indigenous, internal source human caused |
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q-point assimilation capacity |
point where damage cost of pollution meets control costs, "acceptable level of pollution for society" |
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three letter toxins |
DDT-insecticide, reduces reproduction PCB-plasticizers and preservatives, causes birth defects PAH-fossil fuel byproduct PFC-teflons, powerful greenhouse gas BPA-plastic ingredient, leaches into ocean, feminizer |
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petroleum effects |
toxic to eggs and larva reduces photosynthesis covers organisms chemical poisoning |
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bioremediation and its issues |
use of micro-organisms to remove or transform pollutants not practical due to size of ocean, containment issues, and marine snow limited by organism, nutrients, growth conditions |
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bioaccumulation biomagnification |
accumulation of Hg in muscle tissues high accumuations in higher trophic levels |
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fish feminization |
male to female change through urinary byproduct of oral contraceptives and estrogen mimickers |
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indicators of global warming |
increased atm. co2 global mean surface temperature continental percipitation heavy precipitation events frequency and severity of droughts global mean sea level snow cover el nino tropical cyclone activity |
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el nino |
southern oscillation, shift in position of atmospheric pressure centers in indian ocean, leads to changes in wind, rainfall, currents, sea level, blocks upwelling |
