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182 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Captain James Cook
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HMS Endeavor; made important surveys of geography, geology, faunas and flora of pacific Ocean areas; 1758-1779
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Alexander von Humboldt
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Central and South America; 1779-1804
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Edward Forbes
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Shetland Sea Benthos; 1830-1840
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Charles Darwin
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HMS Beagle; South America and Pacific; 1831-1836
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Charles Wyville Thompson
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HMS Lightning 1868; HMS Porcupine 1870; wrote first oceanography book 'The depths of the sea' 1873
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John Murray (and Charles Wyville Thompson)
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Challenger Expedition 1872; general contours o the ocean floor, systematic collections of biota, plots of ocean currents and temperature
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Victor Hensen
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Father of German oceanography; emphasis on plankton biology; plankton are the 'blood of the sea'; International Council for the Exploration of the Seas
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Plymouth Laboratory
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British school 1930-40; Studied plankton biology in the English Channel; E.J. Allen; application of chemistry and physics to phytoplankton
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Louis and Alexander Agassiz
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American school 1930; promote marine science; L.A. founded museum of comparative zoology at harvard; A.A. copper mines and expanding MCZ and marine exploration
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Gordon A. Riley
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Modern plankton studies 1930-60; application of mathematics/modeling; phytoplankton population size, photosynthetic rate, respiration, grazing
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Bruce Heezen
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Seafloor mapping, plate techtonics 1960
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What are the 5 oceans?
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Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Artic, Antarctic Circumpolar Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
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ring of volcantic activity around it; few rivers entering it: Amur and Yangtze
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Atlantic Ocean
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lots of coast line; rivers: Amazon, Mississippi, Congo; marginal seas: Mediterranean, Black, Caribbean, North, Hudson Bay
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Indian Ocean
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marginal seas: Red, Persian Gulf, Bay of Bengal; large rivers: Brahmaputra + Ganges, Indus, Zambezi
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Arctic Ocean
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low salinity; lots of rivers from Asia
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Antarctic Circumpolar Ocean
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interfaces with three major oceans, westward circulation of water, upwelling of deep water = nutrient rich; highly productive ~50% ocean productivity
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Physiographic provinces
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continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal plain
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Continental shelf
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big changes in sea level ~100-200 m deep
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Continental slope
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submarine canyons, turbidity currents ~4 degree angle
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Abyssal plain
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~ 5000 m deep; three major types of sediment: lithogenous, biogenous, aeolian
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Lithogenous
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(abyssal plain) sediments from land
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Biogenous
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(abyssal plain) sediments of biological origin, dead shells of marine plankton, CaCO3 and SiO2
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Aeolian
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(abyssal plain) wind blown sediments, red clay
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Hydrogenous
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(abyssal plain + aeolian) chemicals formed at low temp and high pressure
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Lithosphere
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crust of the earth; continental crust, oceanic crust, mantle
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Continental crust |
(land) made up of igneous granite (intrusive) 35 km thick |
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Oceanic crust |
made of of igneous basalt (extrusive) 7 km thick |
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Mantle
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molten layer; asthenosphere; most dense
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Isostasty
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crustal balance between the land and sea; pressures equalize geophysically
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Age of rocks in continent and ocean
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~ 4 billion and ~160-180 million; rocks in the oceanic ridges are very young
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Subduction
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at the edges of the continents the oceanic crusts moves down (it is more dense) into the mantle
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Alfred Wegener
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Plate tectonics; Theory of Continental Drift 1912; supercontinent Pangaea that broke apart and drifted (fit of coastline, common fossils)
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Heezen seafloor mapping and plate tectonics observations
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rock magnetism, sea floor spreading, ocean ridge system
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Rock Magnetism
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(plate tectonics) the earth acts as a giant bar magnet and when new basalt is formed it orients to the magnetic poles; continents were not always orients as they are now
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Sea Floor Spreading
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(plate tectonics) basalt was youngest at the ridges and became progressively older; depth of the sediments got progressively thicker with distance; deep trenches were around continental margins (subduction)
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Ocean Ridge System
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(plate tectonics) upwelling of magma in the oceanic ridges and spreading and subduction
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Plate tectonics
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unifying concept; location and frequency of earthquakes concentrated along ridges and margins; major plates were bounded by areas of high seismic activity; plates consisted of crust (lithosphere) and the upper layer of mantles
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Major ions of sea water
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Chloride Cl-, Sulfate SO4 2-, Bicarbonate HCO3-, Sodium Na+, Magnesium Mg 2+, Calcium Ca 2+, Potassium K+
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Properties of water
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dipole (negative and positive charge); easily dissolve salts; form H bonds and act as larger molecule =higher boiling and freezing point than similar sized molecules
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How salts got into ocean
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they are the ions left behind after a variety of complex reactions, biological and geochemical processing, chloride from volcanic gases = chloride in ocan is an excess volatile
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Processes that ADD ions to seawater
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chemical weathering, cyclic salts
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Chemical weathering
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action of water and CO2 on rocks producing calcium, bicarbonate and silicate ions
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Cyclic Salts
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rainwater very much like seawater = dominated by sodium and chloride; chloride entering the ocean came primarily from the ocean; seawater is in a long-term steady state for chloride
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Processes that REMOVE ions from seawater
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ion exchange, carbonate formation, reverse weathering, opal formation, sulfate reduction, evaporite formation
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Ion exchange
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charge balance; clay particles lose Ca 2+ and exchange for Na+ and K+ in estuaries
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Carbonate Formation
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CaCO3 from skeletons of organisms makes sediments
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Reverse Weathering
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ions in solution precipitate onto solid surfaces by adsorption or co-precipitation of minerals from seawater; CaCO3 sphere gain weight in shallow but lose weight in deep
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Carbonate compensation depth
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(reverse weathering) the point where the net change in weight of the spheres is zero
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Opal Formation
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SiO2 and H20 is produced by organisms as skeletons, especially diatoms (algae, high latitudes) and radiolarians (protozoa, low latitudes near equator) Si is part of the long-term buffering system of the ocean
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Sulfate Reduction
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Sulfate SO4 2- to sulfide S2; process runs when oxygen is not present, carried out by bacteria; occurs a lot around hydrothermal vent systems
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Evaporite Formation
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different mineral precipitate out as seawater evaporates
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Major vs Minor vs Trace constituents of seawater
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major ions behave conservatively; minor and trace behave non-conservatively = generally governed by organisms
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Alfred Redfield
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physiologist at Harvard; observations about nutrients in sea water; biochemical circulation
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Biochemical circulation
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(Redfield) biologically active elements circulation in a very different fashion from the general water circulation; twin processes of synthesis and regeneration can be separated in space
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Redfield Ratio
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106 C: 16 N: 1 P
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Halocline
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gradient in salinity
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Thermocline
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gradient in temperature
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Pycnocline
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gradient in density
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Density
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p (rho) specific gravity of water, determined by temperature, salinity, and pressure; S = 35% @ 20C and 1atm
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AIW
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(density) Antarctic Intermediate water; S = 33.8% T = 2.2C
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ABW
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(density) Antarctic Bottom Water; S = 34.62% T = -1.9C
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Sound propagation of sea water
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velocity decreases with decreased temp; velocity increases with increase pressure; temp effects dominate in shallow water; pressure effects dominate in deep water
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SOFAR zone
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sound fixing and ranging; area of channeled sound; sound travels at high speed at the bottom of the mixed layer, a thin high velocity layer just above the pycnocline ~ 80m
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Shadow zone
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beyond the area of divergence, a region into which very little sound energy penetrates
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Hypoosmotic
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marine fish; must drink seawater; excrete small amts of concentrated urine
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Incident light
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(optical properties) light at surface of sea direct or diffuse (scattered)
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Reflection
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(optical properties) influenced by sea state, waves, foam patches, bubbles
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Attenuation
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(optical properties) way the amount and spectral composition change with depther
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Adsorption and Scattering
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(optical properties) reason light decreases with depth
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l(z) = l(o) e^-kz |
attenuation coefficient (k) different colors attenuate at different rates, red light is attenuated more rapidly than blue; blue penetrates deepest in pure water; when dissolved organic matter present green light penetrates
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Coriolis Effect |
points at different latitudes on the surface rotate at different velocites; net effect of the earts roation and redistribution of heat is to form belts of prevailing winds |
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Eckman Spiral |
wind drives the surface water in a direction of 45 degrees to the right of its path; deeper waters continue to deflect to the right but more at a slower speed with increasin depth |
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Cyclonic |
circulation around a low pressure system (counter-clockwise); northern hemisphere
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Anticyclonic |
circulation around a high pressure system (clockwise); southern hemisphere |
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Upwellling |
deep cold water rises to surface; under lows (cyclonic); high primary productivity |
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Downwellings |
cold water sinks below warm water; under highs (anticyclonic); low productivity; oligitrophic |
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Geostrophic currents |
water piles up in the center of the mid ocean gyres because of the Coriolis effect and forms a hill; gravity tends to pull water down creating geostropic current |
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Gyres |
large system of rotating ocean currents created by Coriolis effect |
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Oligotrophic |
low in nutrients |
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Langmuir circulation |
driven by the wind; windrows tend to develop in the direction of the wind as a resutl of alternate rows of upwelling and downwelling; mixes plankton, organisms accumulate in downwelling |
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Coastal upwellings |
on the scales of 100s of km along continental margin |
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Ekman transport |
carries surface water away fromt he continenet and upwelled water replaces the water that has moved away |
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Equatorial upwellings |
created by the Coriolis effect acting on the westward flowing equatorial currents; pull water in both directions away from equatorial region; replaced by subsurface water; creates upwelling |
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Gulf Stream Eddies |
very large eddie form north and south of the Gulf Stream; north of stream = warm eddies rotate clockwise (warm core rings); south of stream = cold eddies roate counter clockwise ( cold core rings) |
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NADW |
north atlantic deep water; cold and salty, sinks to the bottom because of density; travels south |
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ABW |
antarctic bottom water; denser than NADW, forces NADW to surface; creates upwelling rich in nutrients = great productivity |
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MOC |
Meridional Overturning Circulation; thermocline circulation; uneven distribution of heating strongly influences ocean currents which impact climate |
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Intertidal zone |
where the ocean reaches the land |
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Lunar tidal cycle |
moon is over head 24hr and 50 min later every day; moon exerts gravitationa attraction which pulls ocean toward moon; two high tides and two low tides on the earths surface at any one time |
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Spring tides |
when the moon and sun are aligned; highest highs and lowest lows |
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Neap tides |
when the sun and moon are not aligned; lower amplitudes |
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Semidiurnal tidal cycles |
twice each day |
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diurnal tidal cycle |
typical |
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mixed tidal cyles |
large land effect |
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King tides |
occur when the earth, moon and sun are aligned at perigee and perihelion |
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Perihelion |
when the earth is closest to the sun |
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Perigee |
when the moon is closest to the earth |
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Fetch |
the length of open ocean over which the wind blows |
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Crest |
highest point of wave; trough =lowest point |
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Height |
vertical distance from crest to trough |
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Wavelength |
distance between crests |
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Period |
time it takes for wave to go past a point |
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Capillary waves |
light winds over waer cause riples less than 1.74 cm in length |
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Gravity waves |
stronger winds aboue 4 mph cause large waves to form; continue untill they break on surf |
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Tsunamis |
caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanoes and other disturbances of the seafloor; seismic sea waves |
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ENSO |
El nino southern oscillation; long distance linkage of the atmospher barometric pressure over the pacific/indian oceans; low pressure system oscillates between western pacific/indian ocean and eastern pacific; profouund global impacts on weather |
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La nina |
the opposite exreme of el nino, but does not alway occur after an ENSO |
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Pelagic |
open ocean enviroment |
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Benthic |
ocean bottom enviroment |
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Neritic |
from the shore our to 200 m depth |
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Oceanic |
area beyond the 200 m contour |
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Mesopelagic zone |
200-1000 m depth; oxygen minimum at ~700 caused by decomposition; nutrient maximum at ~1000 |
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Plankton |
organisms that drift with ocean currents |
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Nekton |
organisms that move independently of currents |
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Benthos |
live on (epifauna) or in (infauna) the bottom sediments |
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G.E. Hutchinson n-dimensional hypervolume |
organisms nitch has many dimensions to it |
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Fundamental niche |
n-dimentional space an organism theoretically occupies |
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Realized niche |
actual space occupied; usually restricted by biological interaction |
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Principle of Competitive Exclusion |
(Gause) no two species in equilibrium can occupy the same niche |
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Paradox of the Plankton |
(G.E. Hutchinson) how can so many species occupy the seemingly homogeneous mixed layer of lake/ocean if the principle of competitive exclusion is correct? many limiting resources or disequilibrium? then why do so many species occupy mixed layer in lake/ocean? many limiting resources or disequilibrium? |
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Adaptations
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special inherited features that enable a species to function in its niche
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Acclimatization
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changes in tolerance with seasonal environmental change
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Acclimation
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compensatory process involving a shift in a funtion following an environmental change
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dN/dt = rN
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density independent growth; exponential growth; dN/dt = rN where N=number individuals in an area at t and r=(b-d)or growth rates; J shaped curve
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dH/dt = r N(K-N/K)
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density dependent growth; Logistic equation; Verhulst-Pearl; dN/dt = r N(K-N/K) where K=carrying capacity; S shaped curve
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Life tables
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constructed for organisms with one more more generation per year; demographics=study of birth and death processes that determine age structure of populations
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MacArthur and Wilson
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published Island Biogeography; first to use r-selection and K-selection
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r-selection
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selection for traits that favor rapid population growth at low densities
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K-selection
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selection for traits that favor competitive ability at densities near the carrying capacity
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Continuum
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there is a continuum of tradeoffs between reproductive capacity and efficiency
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Intraspecific
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between individuals of the same species
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Interspecific
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between individuals of different species
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Interference competition
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access to a resource is denied to competitors by the dominant individual or species
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Exploitative competition
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scramble competition; the direct use of a resource that reduces its availability to a competing individual or species, simply by consumption
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Coefficient of competition
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(alpha)12 or (alpha)21; incorporates the effects of interspecific competition
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(alpha)12
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competition coefficient that scales the effect of an individual of species 2 on species 1
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(alpha)21
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effect of individual of spp 1 on spp 2
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Monod
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equation for growth rate that incorporates concentration of the limiting nutrient
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Joseph Connell
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intertidal barnacles Balanus and Chthamalus; intra specific comp very sprong in Balanus, interspecific comp more important for Chthamalus; Chthamalus outcompeted by Balanus
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Holling curves
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functional responses to prey density; as pre increases predators eat more prey
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Components of functional response to prey densities
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rate of successful search for prey; search and handling time; hunger level of predator; inhibition of predation by prey
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Rate of successful search for prey
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relative mobility of predators and prey; size of perception field or predator; proportion of attacks resulting in capture
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Search and Handling time
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time spent pursuing and subduing prey/ eating prey/ in digestive pause
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Hunger level of predator
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rate of digestion and assimilation; gut capacity
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Inhibition of predation by prey
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behavioral/ morphological adaption of prey
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Commensalism
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benefits one
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Mutualism
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benefits both
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Parasitism
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benefit at host's expense
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Factors affecting species diversity
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time, spatial heterogeneity, competition, environmental stability, predation
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Victor Hensen
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coined 'plankton' in 1887; greek for wanderer
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Neuston
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organisms attached to the air-sea interface; bacteria, protozoa, algae, and larger animals such as Physalia
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Nekton
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animals that swim
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Holoplanktonic
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spend entire life in open water; no benthic stage
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Meroplanktonic
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organisms that spend part of their lives in the plankton and part in the benthos
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Neritic
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species found in water above the continental shelf
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Tychoplanktonic
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organisms normally attached to substrate but they may be occasionally broken off and thus float in the plankton
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Cyanophyta/Cyanobacteria
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Blue green algae; prokaryotic, no organelles; reproduce by cell division, have heterocysts, some function as symbionts; chlorophyll a, phycobilins, beta carotene, xanthophylls
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Heterocysts
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special cells with thick walls which are centers of N-fixation
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Very small cyanophyta and techniques to find them
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Synechocystis and Synechoccocus; epifluorescence and flow cytometry
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Cyanophyta with N-fixation
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Trichodesmium
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Chlorophyta
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green algae; mostly near shore macroalgae; flagellate cell walls; chlorophyll a and b; carotenes and xanthophylls
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Prasinophyta
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cell wall is not cellulose but organic scales form a theca; different flagellae than chlorophytes; Pyramimonas (alternate btwn flagellate cell and benthic stage); Micromonas (common in plankton, very small
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Chrysophyta
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golden algae; chlorophyll a and c, and carotenoid=fucozanthin; capable of phagotrophy; mixotrophs; many have cell walls covered with silica scales=silicoflagellate; Distephanus have Si skeleton; Dictyocha fibula
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Phagotrophy
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when the both photosynthesise and engulf cells
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Mixotrophs
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mixed feeders
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Haptophyta
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coccolithophores; similar to chrysophytes except flagellae are different; Phaeocystis (forms gelatinous colonies, gave rise to oil deposits); Emiliania huxleyi (covered with calcareous plates, fossilize)
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Xanthophyta
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yellow-green algae; similar to chrysophyta but lack fucoxanthin; Olisthodiscus (cultured as food for oysters)
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Meroplanktonic
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spend part of their life history as plankton and part benthic
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Cryptophyta
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cryptomonads; biflagellae cells; some are colorless heterotrophs; some are zooxanthellae; Chroomonas (common species)
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Zooxanthellae
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small yellow-brown symbiotic dinoflagellate present in invertebrates and certain marine ciliates (protozoa)
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Euglenophyta
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most are autotrophic but some are hetero/mixotrophic; unicellular flagellates; chlorophyll a and b; have eye spot; Eutreptia (marine spp)
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Bacillariophyta
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Diatoms; cell walls are made of silica (glass) called frustules; accumulate lips to float; Pseudonitzschia pungens (ASP amnesiac shellfish poisoning)
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Frustules
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diatom cell walls made of silica, two halves of cell wall fit together like a petri dish; epivalve and hypovalve (top and bottom)
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Auxospore
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diatom zygote; does not have Si in the cell wall and it immediately swells up enclosed in a perizonium, when reaches size may incorporate Si into cell wall
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Pseudonitzschia pungens |
diatom; ASP amnesic shellfish poisoning |
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Pyrrophyta
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Dinoflagellates; produce non-motile zooxanthellae especially when in association with hermatypic corals ; chlorophyll a and c and peridinin; many mixotrophic; responsible for red tides; Gymnodinium (lacks cell walls);
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Hermatypic corals
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reef building corals
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NSP
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Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
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PSP
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Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
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DSP
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Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
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dN1/dt = r1 N1 (K1 -N (alpha)12 N2/K1) |
competition equation, coefficient of competition |
