H Of Gd - Midterm

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1-1. Cave painting from Lascaux, c. 15,000–10,000 BCE. Random placement and shifting scale signify prehistoric people’s lack of structure and sequence in recording their experiences. Images of animals were drawn and painted upon the walls. The pigment may have been smeared on the walls with a finger, or a brush made by bristles or reeds. It was the dawning of visual communications made for survival, utilitarian, and ritualistic purposes.

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1-2. Found carved and sometimes painted on rocks in the western United States, these petroglyphic figures, animals, and signs are similar to those found all over the world. Petroglyphs are carved or scratched signs or simple figures on rock. Many of the petroglyphs are pictographs, and some may be ideographs, or symbols to represent ideas or concepts.

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1-5. Early Sumerian pictographic tablet, c. 3100 BCE. This archaic pictographic script contained the seeds for the development of writing. Information is structured into grid zones by horizontal and vertical division. The abundance of clay in Sumer made it the logical material for record keeping and a reed stylus was use to draw the fine, curved lines of the early pictographs. The lines were written in careful vertical columns.

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1-17. Detail of the Code of Hammurabi, c. 1800 BCE. Whether pressed into clay or carved into stone as shown here, Mesopotamian scribes achieved a masterful control and delicacy in their writing and arrangement of the strokes in the partitioned space. Written in careful cuneiform on a 2.5 meter (8ft) tall steele, this inscribed stone was used for commemorative purposes. The steele contains 282 laws gridded in twenty-one columns.

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1-18. Stamp-cylinder seal (“the Tyszkiewicz seal”), Hittite, 1650–1200 BCE. Combining decorative ornamentation with figurative images, this most likely portrays a ritual, possibly with a sacrificial offering on the right. It has both an image on the side, for rolling, and an image on the bottom, for stamping. Because it allows images to be reproduced, the cylinder seal can be seen as a precursor to printing. It was impossible to duplicate or counterfeit.

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1-22. The Rosetta Stone, c. 197–196 BCE. From top to bottom, the concurrent hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek inscriptions provided the key to the secrets of ancient Egypt. To commemorate the ascension of Pharaoh Ptolemy V to the throne of Egypt.

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1-31. Detail from the Papyrus of Hunefer, c. 1370 BCE. Hunefer and his wife are worshipping the gods of Amenta. The sun god Ra bears an ankh symbol on his knee, and Thoth holds the udjat, the magical protective “sound eye” of the god Horus.

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2-2. The Phaistos Disk, undated. The 241 signs include a man in a plumed headdress, a hatchet, an eagle, a carpenter’s square, an animal skin, and a vase. Lacking precedent or parallel, this flat terra-cotta disk has pictographic and seemingly alphabetic forms imprinted on both sides in spiral bands. Typelike stamps were used to impress each character into wet clay; thus the principle of movable type could have been used in Western culture as early as 2000 BCE.

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2-3. Ras Shamra script, c. 1500 BCE. Used for bureaucratic and commercial documents and for myths and legends, the Ras Shamra script, which reduces cuneiform to a mere thirty-two characters, was only recently unearthed in the ruins of the ancient city of Ugarit. Represent elementary consonant sounds; no characters to signify vowels. The alphabetical order of Ras Shamra script as the same as those used in the later Phoenician and Greek alphabets

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2-11. Votive stele with four figures, fifth century BCE. The design excellence of Greek inscriptions is clearly shown in this fragment. By using a three-sided square with a central dot for the E and a V-shaped horizontal in the A, the designer engaged in a personal inventiveness with form. The letters became symmetrical geometric constructions of timeless beauty. Stone carvers took imaginative liberties with letterform design while maintaining the basic structure of the 24 character alphabet stabilized by the classical period.

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2-16. Etruscan Bucchero vase, seventh or sixth century BCE. A prototype of an educational toy, this rooster-shaped toy jug is inscribed with the Etruscan alphabet.

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2-17. Carved inscription from the base of Trajan’s Column, c. 114 CE Located in Trajan’s Forum in Rome, this masterful example of capitalis monumentalis (monumental capitals) gives silent testimony to the ancient Roman dictum “the written word remains.” The controlled brush drawing of the forms on the stone combines with the precision of the stonemason’s craft to create letterforms of majestic proportion and harmonious form. A Roman inscription became a sequence of linear geometric forms adapted from the square, triangle, and circle. Combined into an inscription, these letterforms molded the negative shapes around and between them into a measured graphic melody of spatial forms, achieving an eternal wholeness.

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3-7. Li Fangying (1696–1755), from Album of Eight Leaves, ink on paper, Qing dynasty, 1744. The design of the total page, with the bamboo bending out into the open space in contrast to the erect column of writing, ranks among the most outstanding examples of Chinese art. Vividly descriptive strokes with a bamboo brush join calligraphy and painting, poem and illustration into a unified communication. Nature is an inspiration for both, and every stroke and dot is given the energy of a living thing. Spiritual states and deep feelings can be expressed in calligraphy.

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3-11. Zhao Meng-fu, a goat and sheep, fourteenth century CE. Chops (carved calligraphic characters on a flat surface of a jade, silver, gold, or ivory) were used to imprint the names of owners or viewers of a painting. Fundamental technique for block printing. Has both types of chops imprinted upon its surface: white characters reversed from a solid ground and solid characters surrounded by a white ground.

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3-15. The Diamond Sutra, 868 CE. Wang Chieh sought spiritual improvement by commissioning the duplication of the Diamond Sutra by printing; the wide free spread of knowledge was almost incidental (to honor his parents).

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4-1. The Vatican Vergil, the death of Laocoön, early fifth century CE. Two scenes from the life of Laocoön are shown in one illustration. One scene shows the demise of Laocoon, a priest punished by death for profaning the temple of Apollo. The scene on the left shows Laocoon calmly preparing to sacrifice a bull at the temple of Poseidon, oblivious to the approach of two serpents in the lake at the upper left corner. On the right, Laocoon and his two young sons are attacked and killed by the serpents. The crisp rustic letter is Roman and the illustrations framed in bright bands of color are the same width as the text column. (text and illustrations represent classical style)

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4-5. The Book of Durrow, opening page, the Gospel of Saint Mark, 680 CE. Linked into a ligature, an I and an N become an aesthetic form of interlaced threads and coiling spiral motifs. The name carpet pages (full pages of decorative design) developed due to the densely packed design had the intricate patterning associated with oriental carpets.

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4-6. The Lindisfarne Gospels, carpet page facing the opening of Saint Matthew, c. 698 CE. A mathematical grid buried under swirling lacertine (interlaces created by animal forms) birds and quadrupeds brings structure to the textured areas. A red, contoured cross with white circular “buttons” brings timeless stability to its churning energy. The interlace was a two-dimensional decoration formed by a number of ribbons or straps woven into a complex, usually symmetrical design. Drafting instruments were used to construct many of the designs in Celtic manuscripts Most forms were based on imagination or on earlier models (observation of nature was not required of the Celtic designer or illustrator).

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4-7. The Book of Kells, the Chi-Rho page, 794–806 CE. Amid intricate spirals and lacertines, the artist has drawn thirteen human heads, two cats, two mice calmly watching two other mice tug at a wafer, and an otter holding a salmon. The illuminator created a graphic explosion using the monogram XP (Chi-Rho). Composed of shimmering color and intricate, convoluted form blossoming over the whole page.

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4-10. Caroline minuscules from the Alcuin Bible, ninth century CE. An economy of execution and good legibility (restored) characterized this new writing style (practical and easy to write). The forerunner of our contemporary lowercase alphabet. Characters were set apart instead of joined, and the number of ligatures was reduced.

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4-12. Capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, c. 873 CE, created in Rheims at a scriptorium associated with Charles the Bald (emperor 840–77). The capitularies is a compilation of law codes assembled by Ansegisus, abbot of Saint Wandrille, in 827 CE. The text is in Caroline minuscule with headings in rustic and a version of square capitals. Rustic capitals are used for supplementary materials, including chapter lists, introductory words, and prefaces.

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4-18. The multitude worshipping God, from the Douce Apocalypse, 1265 CE. Saint John, the roving reporter of the final doom, is shown at the left of the scene, peering curiously into the rectangular image. Each of the hundred illustrated pages has an illustration above two columns of beautifully lettered text. The scribe used a lettering style whose repetition of verticals capped with pointed serifs. Textura is the favored name for this dominant mode of Gothic lettering (functional because all the vertical strokes in a word were drawn first). Rounded strokes were almost eliminated. Letters and the spaces between them were condensed (save space on precious parchment) to give an overall effect in one dense black texture. The illustrations are divided into segments by elaborate framing. Represents a new breed of picture book.

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4-25. The Limbourg brothers, January and February pages from Les tres riches heures du duc de Berry, 1413-16. Both pictorial and written information is presented with clarity, attesting to a high level of observation and visual organization. The first 24 pages are illustrated calender. Each month has a double page spread with a genre illustration relating to seasonal activities of the month. The illustrations are crowned with graphic astronomical charts depicting constellations and the phases of the moon. Uses vibrant red and blue inks for lettering. A pencil grid structure established the format containing the information.

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5-7. Pages from an ars moriendi, 1466. A montage juxtaposes the deathbed scene with the subject’s estate. One demon urges, “Provide for your friends,” while the other advises, “Attend to your treasures.” The densely textured text page recommends donating one’s earthly goods to the Church. 11 illustrations depict the temptation of the devil and the comfort of the angel on subjects such as faight, impatience, vainglory, and the final hour of death. 13 pages are block-print text. Considered an early example of printed propaganda, for it urges the dying to put aside the desire to provide for one's family and to will one's estate to the church.

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5-12. Johann Gutenberg, thirty-one-line letters of indulgence, c. 1454. The written additions in this copy indicate that on the last day of December 1454, one Judocus Ott von Apspach was pardoned of his sins. Early surviving examples of typographic design and printing include a German poem on the Last Judgment, four calenders, and a number of editions of Latin grammar by Donatus. Gutenberg made every effort to imitate the calligraphic style.

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5-14. Johann Gutenberg, pages 146 and 147 from the Gutenberg Bible, 1450–55. The superb typographic legibility and texture, generous margins, and excellent presswork make this first printed book a canon of quality that has seldom been surpassed. An illuminator added the red headers and text, initials, and floral marginal decoration by hand. The generous number of alternate character and ligatures enabled Gutenberg to achieve the richness and variety of the manuscript page. Blank spaces were left for decorative initials to be drawn in later by a scribe.

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5-18. Jan Fust and Peter Schoeffer, page from Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, 1459. The innovative small type is combined with wonderfully intricate printed red and blue initials that evidence the early printer’s efforts to mimic the design of the manuscript book. The first typographic book that employed a small-sized type style to conserve space and increase the amount of text on each page. This achieved a significant economy in presswork, ink, and parchment.

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6-12. Anton Koberger, pages from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. As in image 6–11 the raised hand ofGod implies the biblical story of creation. Has 1,809 woodcut illustrations in its complex, carefully designed 47.5 by 32.6 cm (18 by 12in) pages.

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6-19. Albrecht Dürer, broadside, 1515. Dürer developed his woodcut illustration from a sketch and description sent from Spain, after the first rhinoceros in over a thousand years arrived in Europe. In his mature work he achieved mastery in the use of line as tone. At least eight editions of his rhinoceros went out print.

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6-20. Albrecht Dürer, from Underweisung der Messung, 1525. Dürer presented variations for each characters in the alphabet. The first two chapters are theoretical discussions of linear geometry and two-dimensional geometric construction. The third chapter explains the application of geometry to architecture, decoration, engineering, and letterforms. Durer's beautifully proportioned Roman capitals with clear instructions for their composition, contributed significantly to the evolution of alphabet design. Recognizing the value of art and perception as well as geometry, he advised his readers that certain construction faults could only be corrected by a sensitive eye and trained hand. The fourth chapter covers the construction of geometric solids, linear perspective, and mechanical aids to drawing.

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6-22. Johann Schoensperger (printer), pages from Teuerdank, 1517. The full title of the work translates as “The adventures and a portion of the story of the praiseworthy, valiant, and high-renowned hero and knight, Lord Tewrdannckh.” The flamboyant calligraphic gestures are appropriate for this romantic novel about chivalry. The swashes are carefully placed to animate the pages in the layout of the book. The types for Teuerdank, designe by court calligrapher Vincenz Rockner, comprise on of the earliest examples of the Gothic style known as Fraktur. Some of the rigid, angular straight lines found in texture letterforms were replaced with flowing, curved strokes.

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6-24. Johannes Grunenberg (printer) and Lucas Cranach the Elder (illustrator), pages from Passional Christi und Antichristi, 1521. Here Christ is depicted driving the moneylenders from the temple. Scenes from the lift of Christ and biting depictions of the papacy are juxtaposed in graphic contrast on facing pages. (Cranach's propaganda)

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6-31. William Caxton, pages from The Canterbury Tales, 1477. Stabilized and unified the constantly changing, diverse dialects in use throughout the islands. Caxton contributed little to the evolution of book design and printing, as his work had a crude vigor devoid of graphic elegance or refinement. Woodcut illustrations from his volumes have a brash forcefulness and are awkwardly drawn.

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7-9. Erhard Ratdolt, Peter Loeslein, and Bernhard Maler, page for Calendarium, by Regiomontanus, 1476. A grid of metal rules brings order and legibility to this record of past and future eclipses. Contained sixty diagrams of solar and lunar eclipses printed in yellow and black. During this time, fear and superstition were being swept away as scientists began to understand natural phenomena, and eclipses moved from black magic to predictable fact. Printers disseminated this knowledge, and Calendarium was largely a result of Ratdolt’s interest in mathematics and astronomy.

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7-13. Erhard Ratdolt, Peter Loeslein, and Bernhard Maler, pages from Euclid’s Geometriae elementa, 1482. The wide outer margin (about half as wide as the text column width) is maintained throughout the book for explanatory diagrams. Two sizes of initial letters denote sections and subsections. Small geometric figures, whose sheer delicacy of line represents a technical breakthrough, are placed in the margins adjacent to the supporting text.

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7-22. Aldus Manutius, illustrated spread from Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, 1499. This romantic fantasy tells of young Poliphilius's wandering quest for his lover, who has taken a vow to preserve her chastity; the journey takes him through classical landscapes and architectural environments. It achieved an elegant harmony of typography and illustration that has seldom been equaled. The communicative coordination of the illustrations with the text and the exceptional integration of images and typography indicate that the printer, type designer, author, and artist worked in close collaboration.

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7-24. Aldus Manutius, page from Juvenal and Persius, Opera, 1501. This was one of the first books using Griffo’s new italic type. Note the unfilled space for a rubricated initial, the letterspaced, all-capital heading, and the capital roman letter at the beginning of each line. Italic was closely modeled on the cancelleresca script, a slanted handwriting style that found favor among scholars, who liked its writing speed and informality.

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7-27. Lodovico degli Arrighi, pages from La operina da imparare di scrivere littera cancellaresca, 1522. The ample spaces between lines leave room for the plume-shaped ascenders waving to the right in elegant counterpoint to the descenders sweeping gracefully to the left. Excellent examples to teach the cancelleresca script. Arrighi's masterful writing was meticulously cut onto woodblocks by engraver Ugo da Carpi. Arrighi's directions were so clear and simple that the reader could learn this hand in a few days.

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7-33. Geoffroy Tory, capital from a series of criblé initials, c. 1526. Engraved for Robert Estienne, this alphabet of roman capitals brought elegance and “color” to the pages of books printed at Estienne's press. Roman capital initials are set into black squares that come alive with meticulous floral designs and criblé. These initials were the perfect accompaniment for the lighter new roman types by Garamond.

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7-35. Geoffroy Tory, pages from Champ Fleury, 1529. This double-page spread discusses how Roman philosophers, poets, and orators live on in spirit through the power of Roman letters. The final paragraph of this “second book” introduces the “third book,” the construction of roman letters, with an illustration showing the construction of an A from three I's. A personal book written in a rambling conversational style with frequent digressions into Roman history and mythology. Its message about the Latin alphabet influenced a generation of French printers and punch cutters, and Tory became the most influential graphic designer of his century.

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7-41. Jacques Kerver, title page from Poliphili, 1546. A satyr and a nymph eyeing each other amidst an abundant harvest give the reader a glimpse of the pagan adventures within the book. Shows how rapidly the French Renaissance printers expanded the range of book design. Single size of roman type and used capitals as his only means of emphasis; Kerver had a large range of roman and italic type sizes for his page designs. Kerver selected from an elegant stock of headpieces, tailpieces, and printers’ flowers to embellish the printed page, but some of the display type is unevenly cast with irregular letterspacing. Kerver's illustrator achieved a broad range of tonal effects.

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7-44. Joannes Frellonius (printer) and Hans Holbein the Younger (illustrator), pages from Imagines Mortis (The Dance of Death), 1547. The terror is in striking contrast to the modest illustration size (6.7 centimeters, or 2 inches) and the understated elegance of Frellonius's typography. The Dance of Death, a procession in which skeletons or corpses escort the living to their graves, was a major theme in visual arts as well as in music, drama, and poetry. By separating the procession into individual scenes, Holbein was able to intensify the suddenness and personal tragedy of death.

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7-45. Johann Oporinus (printer), page from De Humani Corporis Fabrica, 1543. Anatomical illustrations of skeletons and muscles in natural poses appear throughout. This book illustrated by full-page woodcuts of remarkable clarity and accuracy by artists working from dissected corpses. Many of the anatomical figures are gracefully posed in landscapes. Oporinus set Vesalius’s turgid, wordy text in tight pages of roman type with precise page numbers, running heads, marginal notes in delicate italic type, and no paragraph indications.

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7-50. Christophe Plantin, pages from the Polyglot Bible, 1571. A double-page format, with two vertical columns over a wide horizontal column, contained Hebrew, Latin, Aramaic, Greek, and Syriac translations of the Bible. The use of copperplate engravings instead of woodcuts to illustrate his books was Plantin's main design contribution. He commissioned masters of this flourishing printmaking medium to design title pages and to illustrate books. Soon engraving was replacing the woodcut as the major technique for graphic images.

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7-51. Stephen and Matthew Daye, title page for The Whole Booke of Psalmes, 1640. In the title typography, a rich variety is achieved by combining three type sizes and using all capitals, all lowercase, and italics to express the importance and meaning of the words. As the title page, with its dominant word whole and border of cast metal printers' flowers, demonstrates, the design and production of this volume was diligent but understandably lacking in refinement.

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8-7. Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune, title pages from Manuel typographique, volume 1, 1764. In addition to showing the design accomplishments of a lifetime, Fournier’s type manual is a masterwork of rococo design. He did not live to complete the other two volumes, one on printing and one on the great typographers' lives and work.

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8-11. William Caslon, broadside type specimen, 1734. This was the first broadside type specimen issued by Caslon. The straightforward practicality of Caslon’s designs made them the dominant roman style throughout the British Empire far into the nineteenth century. They owed their tremendous popularity and appeal to an outstanding legibility and sturdy texture that made them “comfortable” and “friendly to the eye” (embracing the lighter texture). Caslon's fronts have variety in their design, giving them an uneven, rhythmic texture that adds to their visual interest and appeal.

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8-14. John Baskerville, title page for Vergil’s Bucolica, Georgica, et Aeneis (Pastorals, Georgics, and the Aeneid), 1757. Baskerville reduced the design to letterforms symmetrically arranged and letterspaced; he reduced content to author, title, publisher, date, and city of publication. Economy, simplicity, and elegance resulted. Wide margins and a liberal use of space between letters and lines were used around his magnificent alphabets.

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8-24. Giambattista Bodoni, page from Manuale tipografico, 1818. This monumental celebration of the aesthetics of letterforms and homage to Bodoni's genius is a milestone in the history of graphic design.

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8-28. Pierre Didot, title page for Petit Caréme de Massilon, by Evéque de Clermont, 1812. By this time the Didot type has attained its mature form, with the contrast between thick and thin strokes having been pushed to the limit.

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8-29. William Blake, title page from The Book of Thel, 1789. Each page was printed as monochrome etching combining word and image. Blake and his wife then either hand-colored each page with watercolor or printed colors, hand-bound each copy in paper covers, and sold them at modest prices. The lyrical fantasy, glowing swirls of color, and imaginative vision that Blake achieved in his poetry and accompanying designs represent an effort to transcend the material of graphic design and printing to achieve spiritual expression. This book shows how Blake adeptly integrated letterforms into illustrations.

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9-2. Thomas Cotterell, twelve lines pica, letterforms, c. 1765. These display letters, shown actual size, seemed gigantic to eighteenth-century compositors, who were used to setting handbills and broadsides using types that were rarely even half this size. Cotterell began the trend of sand-casting large, bold display letters as early as 1765.

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9-17. William Caslon IV, two-line English Egyptian, 1816. This specimen quietly introduced sans-serif type, which would become a major element in graphic design. It closely resembled an Egyptian face with the serifs removed, which is probably how Caslon IV designed it. The name Caslon adopted for this style-two lines English Egyptian-tends to support the theory that it had its origins in an Egyptian-style.

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9-19. Handbill for an excursion train, 1876. To be bolder than bold, the compositor used heavier letterforms for the initial letter of important words. Oversized terminal letterforms combine with condensed and extended styles in the phrase Maryland Day! The designer had access to a nearly infinite range of typographic sizes, styles, weights, and novel ornamental effects, and the prevailing design philosophy often encouraged an eclectic style. The need to lock all the elements tightly on the press enforced a horizontal and vertical stress on the design; this became the basic organizing principle. Design decisions were pragmatic. Long words or copy dictated condensed type, and short words or copy were set in expanded fonts. Important words were given emphasis through the use of the largest available type sizes.

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9-37. and 9-38. Stephen H. Horgan, experimental photoengraving, 1880. This, the first halftone printing plate to reproduce a photograph in a newspaper, heralded the potential of photography in visual communications. It was printed from a crude halftone screen invented by Stephen H. Horgan. The screen broke the image into a series of minute dots whose varying sizes created tones. Values from pure white paper to solid black ink were simulated by the amount of ink printed in each area of the image.

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9-38. Stephen H. Horgan, experimental photoengraving, 1880. This, the first halftone printing plate to reproduce a photograph in a newspaper, heralded the potential of photography in visual communications. Had a full tonal range. The screen broke the image into a series of minute dots whose varying sizes created tones.

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9-43. Mathew Brady, “Dunker Church and the Dead,” 1862. Made in the aftermath of the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest battle of the Civil War, this photograph shows how visual documentation took on a new level of supposed authenticity with photography. Due to technical limitations of the medium, photographers such as Brady could only photograph the results of battles, not the actual fighting. This has led to speculation by scholars that scenes captured by photographs were “staged” or otherwise altered. For example, scholars have suggested that the bodies of the dead may have been moved to enhance the effectiveness of the image.

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9-46. Eadweard Muybridge, plate published in The Horse in Motion, 1883. Sequence photography proved the ability of graphic images to record time-and-space relationships. Moving images became a possibility. Muybridge had been commissioned to prove that a trotting horse lifted all four feet off the ground simultaneously over a bet.

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9-52. John H. Bufford’s Sons, “Swedish Song Quartett” poster, 1867. Arched words move gracefully above seven carefully composed musicians. Large capital letters point to the three soloists, establishing a visual relationship between word and image. He was major innovator of chromolithography and was a masterly draftsman whose crayon-style images achieved a remarkable realism. The near-photographic lithographic crayon drawing glowed with the bright underprinted yellows and reds of the folk costumes.

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9-65. Walter Crane, page from Absurd ABC, 1874. Animated figures are placed against a black background; large letterforms are integrated with the imagery. Crane designed several alphabet books, each one unlike the others. Walter Crane (1845–1915) was one of the earliest and the most influential designers of children’s picture books. Earlier graphics for children insisted on a didactic or moral purpose, and always taught or preached to the young; Crane sought only to entertain. Influence by Japanese woodblock. He played an important role in the Arts and Crafts movement, and had a significant impact on art and design education.

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9-66. Randolph Caldecott, illustration from Hey Diddle Diddle, c. 1880. Oblivious to the outlandish elopement, Caldecott’s dancing dinnerware moves to a driving musical rhythm. He possessed a unique sense of the absurd, and his ability to exaggerate movement and facial expressions of both people and animals brought his work to life. His humorous drawing style became a prototype for children’s books and later for animated films.

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9-67. Kate Greenaway, page from A Apple Pie, 1886. By leaving out the background, Greenaway simplified her page designs and focused on the figures. Silhouetted images and soft colors created pages of great charm, while the use of white space and asymmetrical balance broke with the Victorian tendency for clutter. Showed expressions of the childhood experience captured the imagination of the Victorian era. The clothes Greenaway designed for her models had a major influence on children’s fashion design. For Greenaway, childhood became an idealized fantasy world which lead to her success.

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9-71a. Thomas Nast, political cartoon from Harper’s Weekly, 1871. This double-page image was posted throughout New York City on election day. Took on political Boss Tweed (controled NY politics from Tammany Hall). Swayed voters and the opposition won the election.

9-71b. Thomas Nast, political cartoon from Harper’s Weekly, 1871. In this cartoon depicting citizens both creating and hanging posters against Tammany Hall, the caption begins by saying, “Here’s the smell of corruption still!”

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10-2. William Pickering, pages from The Elements of Euclid, 1847. Although the ornate initial letters connected this book to the past, its revolutionary layout was far ahead of its time. The book’s author claimed that with his approach of brilliantly printed primary colored diagrams and symbols, geometry could be learned in one-third the time needed with traditional textbooks, and that the learning was more permanent. The dynamic color and crisp structures anticipate geometric abstract art of the twentieth century.

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10-17. William Morris (designer) and Walter Crane (illustrator), page spread for The Story of the Glittering Plain, 1894. Operating on his compulsion to ornament the total space, Morris created a luminous range of contrasting values. Morris named his new enterprise Kelmscott Press. Morris created the typeface Golden, based on Venetian roman faces.

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10-26. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson and Emery Walker, pages from the Doves Press Bible, 1903. This book’s purity of design and flawless perfection of craft have seldom been equaled. They set out to “attack the problem of pure Typography” with the view that “the whole duty of Typography is to communicate to the imagination, without loss by the way, the thought or image intended to be conveyed by the Author.”

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10-33. Jan van Krimpen, pages from Het zatte hart (The Drunken Heart), by Karel van de Woestijne, Palladium no. 25, 1926. It demonstrated Van Krimpen’s deft drawing and use of initial letters and is the only book in the Palladium series set in his own face, Lutetia. For Van Krimpen, typography existed only for the book, and all of his typefaces were designed for this purpose. The designer’s one purpose was to make reading as pleasurable as possible and never come between the reader and the text.

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10-39. Rudolf Koch, specimen of Neuland, 1922–23. A dense texture is achieved in this intuitively designed typeface with unprecedented capital C and S forms. The woodcut-inspired ornaments are used to justify this setting into a crisp rectangle. Koch was an important German type designer in the Arts and Crafts movement. he tried to build upon the calligraphic tradition by creating an original, simple expression from his gestures and materials.

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10-42. Bruce Rogers, page from The Centaur, by Maurice de Guerin, 1915. The headpiece, initial, and page layout echo the graphic designs of the French Renaissance. His 1915 typeface design Centaur is one of the finest of the numerous fonts inspired by Jenson and first used in The Centaur.

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11-10. Jules Chéret, poster, “L’aureole du midi, Pétrole de Sureté,” 1893. His typical composition is a central figure or figures in animated gesture, surrounded by swirls of color, secondary figures or props, and bold lettering that often echoes the shapes and gestures of the figure. His production for music halls and the theater, beverages and medicines, household products, entertainers, and publications transformed the walls of Paris.

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11-14. Eugène Grasset, exhibition poster, c. 1894. Quietly demure instead of exuberant, Grasset’s figures project a resonance very different from that of the Chérette. Illustrates what has been called his “coloring-book style” of thick black contour drawing locking forms into flat areas of color in a manner similar to medieval stained glass windows.

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11-19. Aubrey Beardsley, chapter opening, Morte d’Arthur, 1893. William Morris’s lyrical bouquets were replaced by rollicking mythological nymphs in a briar border design. strong Kelmscott influence with strange and imaginative distortions of the human figure and powerful black shapes. His unique line was reproduced by the photoengraving process, which, unlike the hand-cut woodblock, retained complete fidelity to the original art. “The black spot” was the name given to compositions based on a dominant black form.

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11-21. Aubrey Beardsley, “The Eyes of Herod” illustration for Oscar Wilde’s Salomé, 1894. The dynamic interplay between positive and negative shapes has seldom been equaled. received widespread notoriety for the obvious erotic sensuality of Beardsley’s illustrations. Late-Victorian English society was shocked by this celebration of evil, which reached its peak in Beardsley’s work for an edition of Aristophanes’s Lysistrata. Banned by English censors, it was widely circulated on the Continent.

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11-23. Charles Ricketts, pages from The Sphinx, 1894. The white space and typography printed in rust and olive-green ink are without precedent. His page layouts are lighter, his ornaments and bindings more open and geometric and his designs have a vivid luminosity. The complex, intertwining ornament of Celtic design and the flat, stylized figures painted on Greek vases, which he studied in the British Museum, were major inspirations. From them, Ricketts, like Beardsley, learned how to indicate figures and clothing with minimal lines and flat shapes with no tonal modulation.

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11-25. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, poster, “La Goulue au Moulin Rouge,” 1891. Shapes become symbols; in combination, these signify a place and an event. In front of this is the profile of the dancer Valentine, known as “the boneless one” because of his amazing flexibility. In this milestone of poster design, simplified symbolic shapes and dynamic spatial relationships form expressive and communicative images.

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11-32. Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen, poster for Guillot Brothers sterilized milk, c. 1897. The red dress functions graphically in a manner similar to Beardsley’s “black spot.” Tenderness is displayed in this poster.

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11-34. Alphonse Mucha, Gismonda poster, 1894. The life-size figure, mosaic pattern, and elongated shape created an overnight sensation. Used Byzantine-inspired mosaics as background motifs. The bottom portion of this poster was unfinished because only a week was available for design, printing, and posting. Because of its complexity and muted colors, Mucha’s work lacked Chéret’s impact from afar. But once they stepped closer, Parisians were astounded.

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11-36. Alphonse Mucha, poster for Job cigarette papers, 1898. Mucha delighted in filling the total space with animated form and ornament. Mocha’s stylized hair patterns had become a hallmark of the era in spite of detractors who dismissed this aspect of his work as “noodles and spaghetti.” Mucha’s women project an archetypal sense of unreality. Exotic and sensuous while retaining an aura of innocence, they express no specific age, nationality, or historical period.

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11-45. Will Bradley, cover for the Inland Printer, 1895. Figures are reduced to organic symbols in dynamic shape relationships. He made innovative use of photomechanical techniques to produce repeated, overlapping, and reversed images. Had a style of flat shapes and stylized contour.

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11-53. Ethel Reed, poster for Arabella and Araminta Stories, by Gertrude Smith, 1895. With an imaginative use of three-color printing, the blond hair of the two girls glows against their black clothing. Ethel Reed (b. 1876) was the first American woman to achieve national prominence as a graphic designer and illustrator.

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11-56. Edward Penfield, poster for Harper’s, 1897. Spatial compression similar to a telephoto lens converts five overlapping figures into a rhythmic two-dimensional pattern. Penfield drew with a vigorous, fluid line, and flat color planes to bring the figures forward.

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11-60. Henri van de Velde, poster for Tropon food concentrate, 1899. This swirling configuration may have been inspired by the separation of egg yolks from egg whites. Rather than communicating information about the product or depicting people using it, Van de Velde engaged the viewer with symbolic form and color.

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11-64. Privet Livemont, poster for Rajah coffee, 1899. The steam from the coffee cup and the product name are entwined in a fascinating interplay of forms. Inspired by Mucha’s idealized women, their tendrilous hair, and their lavish ornament. His major innovation was a double contour separating the figure from the background. His posters were often outlined by a thick, white band, which increased the image’s impact when posted on billboards. His many exhibition posters for this group feature intense color and pushed the art nouveau arabesque into an almost mechanical, tense line.

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11-68. Jan Toorop, poster for Delftsche Slaolie (Delft Salad Oil), 1894. Printed in yellow and lavender, this poster becomes kinetic through its undulating linear rhythms and close-valued complementary colors. His use of the silhouette, his linear style, and the forms, expressions, and hairstyles of his female figures are derived from Javanese wajan shadow puppets.

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11-71. Otto Eckmann, Jugend cover, 1896. Jugendstil graphics often blended curvilinear stylization with traditional realism. Large-scale ornamentation were inspired by ancient Egyptian artifacts to stylized floral designs. The Jugend typeface was designed with contrasting planes of warm and cool colors.

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12-4 Charles Rennie Mackintosh, poster for the Scottish Musical Review, 1896. In this towering image that rises 2.5 meters (over 8 feet) above the spectator, complex overlapping planes are unified by areas of flat color. The white ring and birds around the figure create a strong focal point. Abstract interpretation of the human figure had not been seen in Scotland before; many were outraged. Purpose of the poster was to arouse curiosity and attention.

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12-9 Gustav Klimt, poster for the first Vienna Secession exhibition (inspired by the Glasgow School), 1898. The large open space in the center is unprecedented in Western graphic design. Klimt referred to Greek mythology to show Athena, goddess of the arts, watching Theseus deliver the deathblow to the Minotaur. This is an allegory of the struggle between the Secession and the Künstlerhaus.

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12-18 Alfred Roller (designer and illustrator), Ver Sacrum calendar for November 1903. An exuberant border brackets a seasonal illustration, “Letzte Blätter” (Last Leaves), and hand-lettered, rectangular numbers and letters. An illustrated monthly calendar.

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12-21 Koloman Moser, poster for the thirteenth Vienna Secession exhibition, 1902. Mathematical patterns of squares and rectangles contrast with the circular forms of the figures and letterforms. A mature phase piece. Use of flat shapes with greater simplicity with a nonrhythmic sense. The geometry was not mechanical or rigid, but subtly organic.

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12-25 Berthold Löffler, poster for a theater and cabaret production of Fledermaus, c. 1907. Masked faces were simplified into reductive symbolic images that were elemental linear significations rather than depictions.

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12-39 Peter Behrens, AEG trademark, 1907. The new mark was consistently applied to buildings, stationery, products, and graphics. Honeycomb signifies mathematical order while functioning as a visual metaphor relating to the complexity of the organization. The hand-lettered typeface was specifically designed for AEG to bring unity to its printed materials.