Exam 1, Lectures 2-9 (Not Including 8)

Front 1

(D)AMNIT-V

Back 1

Degenerative
- progressive and lead to loss of tissue/organ function

Front 2

D(A)MNIT-V

Back 2

Anomalus
- malformation of tissues, organs, systems, or structures
- defects

Front 3

DA(M)NIT-V

Back 3

Metabolic
- biochemical disruption leading to tissue dysfunction

Front 4

DAM(N)IT-V

Back 4

Neoplasia
- cancer
Nutrition
- nutrient deficiencies and excesses

Front 5

DAMN(I)T-V

Back 5

Infectious
- invasion by a pathogen
Inflammatory
- activation of inflammatory processes withOUT infection
Immune-mediated
- immune system attacking own body
Idiopathic
- unknown cause

Front 6

DAMNI(T)-V

Back 6

Traumatic
- incision, abrasion, laceration, fracture...
Toxic
- exposure to compounds capable of causing chemical injury

Front 7

DAMNIT-(V)

Back 7

Vascular
- strokes, blood clots, bleeding, sluggish flow...
- thrombosis, hemorrhage, ischemia...

Front 8

What is the function of a nuclear envelope?

Back 8

It provides a spatial separation between transcription and translation.

Front 9

Parts of a nucleus?

Back 9

Nuclear envelope.
Nuclear pore.
Lamina.
Chromatin.

Front 10

Types of chromatin?

Back 10

Condensed chromatin: associated with lamina, storage.
Euchromatin: looser and available for transcription.

DNA is wrapped around histones to create chromatin.

Front 11

Components of a nucleolus?

Back 11

Dense tubular component: nascent rRNA
Granular component: site of assembly of pre-ribosomal subunits
Fibrillar center: rRNA genes, RNA pol, and signal recognition proteins (SRP)

Front 12

How ribosomes are made?

Back 12

In nucleus: DNA transcribed into rocosomal genes, makes rRNA precursor, hooks up with ribonuclear protein particles (from fibrillar), form immature large and small RNA subunits.
Outside of nucleus: through nuclear pore, activated into functional ribosomes.

Front 13

Nuclear pores?

Back 13

Sit in perinuclear spaces. Held together by 2 types of lamina. Forms a basket with a central channel.

Front 14

How to move proteins into the nucleus?

Back 14

Nuclear localization sequence which activates IMPORTINS to bring proteins in. Protein binds to importin ab complex. Taken through nuclear pore, and RanGTP induces dissociation. RanGTP, along with importin b, is sent back out --> RanGDP, RanGAP, importin b all separated.

Front 15

How to move proteins out of the nucleus?

Back 15

Nuclear export sequence, exportin, GTP.

Front 16

How to move steroids into the nucleus?

Back 16

Heat Shock Proteins are bound to a hormone binding site, blocking the nuclear localization sequence. Upon binding a steroid, hsp90 dissociates, localization sequence is open, enters pore, and begins transcription.

Front 17

What is Pelger-Huet?

Back 17

When nuclear lamina do not organize normally in the envelope...leading to immature-looking neutrophils and are NOT mutilobulated.

Front 18

How does the nucleus act in the cell cycle/duplication?

Back 18

1) lamina are phosphorylated (prophase)
2) pieces of nuclear envelope + lamina break apart, alone with condensed chromatin. (prophase)
3) lamina are dephosphorylated and find each other, chromatin comes together. (early telophase)
4) nuclear envelopes join together and two daughter nuclei are made. (late telophase)

Front 19

What is the cell cycle?

Back 19

G1 -> S -> G2 -> Mitosis.

Front 20

Where are checkpoints for the cell cycle.

Back 20

G1 (restriction point) and G2 (backup).

Front 21

How does cell cycle restriction work?

Back 21

Unphosphorylated Rb (retinoblastoma) protein sits at restriction point. When it is phosphorylated (by cyclin), it becomes inactive and growth factors can stimulate progression of cell cycle.

Front 22

What are the tumor suppressor genes?

Back 22

Rb (retinoblastoma) regulates at the restriction point.
p53 gene encodes for p53 protein that regulates cell proliferation.

Work to limit growth factors.

Front 23

How does p53 work?

Back 23

When activated, either initiates G1 arrest or apoptosis.

Front 24

Endosome

Back 24

Plasma membrane that has come off to be used or integrated by the cell.

Front 25

Pathway of protein to cytoplasm?

Back 25

1) proteins are localzed on the RER
2) they then translocated to the Golgi
3) then they go into secretory vesicles (zymogen granules)...
4) and to the plasma membrane then out to extracellular space!

Front 26

How proteins are made, the big picture?

Back 26

Start with a signal recognition peptide. Then protein enters lumen of the RER. Then it grows, signal peptide cleaved, sugars are added. At the end, sugars are cleaved and protein disassociates.

Front 27

Two paths from the golgi are?

Back 27

Either secretory vesicle out of the cell or to lysosomes to be discarded of.

Front 28

Three parts of the golgi?

Back 28

cis (inside) where it touches the ER.
medial (middle) where glycolysation takes place.
trans (outside) which is distribution/sorting side.

Front 29

RER to Golgi?

Back 29

Need specific transport proteins.
Forwards: secretory proteins.
Return: resident proteins and receptors brought back.

Front 30

COP 1 and 2!

Back 30

COP II: RER to golgi.
COP I: between golgi stacks.

Needs energy...uses ARF w/ GTP!

Front 31

Clathrin!

Back 31

Takes proteins either to exterior or to lysosomes. Receptor mediated does NOT need energy. Either making/bringing stuff to lysosomes or in/out of cell.

Front 32

A lot of drugs attempt to modulate _____________ as part of cancer control.

Back 32

?

Front 33

Types of entry into the cell.

Back 33

Phagocytosis. Endocytosis.

Front 34

Lysosome pathways...from the golgi.

Back 34

Clathrin transports protein to a lysosome.

Front 35

Lysosome pathways...from endosomes.

Back 35

Entry, early endosome, late endosome, then lysosome.

Front 36

Mitochondria is where _______ is made.

Back 36

ATP. Inside the membrane...electron transport chain makes ATP.

Front 37

Peroxisomes do...?

Back 37

cellular deetox. decomposes stuff. Common in the liver.

Front 38

Radiopacity

Back 38

unexposed areas, opaque, white

Front 39

Radiolucency

Back 39

exposed areas, less dense, black

Front 40

X-ray downfalls

Back 40

can't tell orientation. expect magnification, distortion, summation, or silhouette.

Front 41

X-ray benefits

Back 41

density dimension

Front 42

Key x-ray concepts

Back 42

- the whiter it is, the thicker it is.
- perceived contrast depends on surrounding material
- have TWO orthogonal views...tells shape and position.

Front 43

Magnification (x-ray)

Back 43

the further an object is from the film plane, the larger it will appear, and the fuzzier the edges

Front 44

Distortion (x-ray)

Back 44

If not parallel, bones can look shorter than reality.

Front 45

Summation (x-ray)

Back 45

Two structures are superimposed, and their densities are ADDITIVE...look super white.

Front 46

Silhouette

Back 46

Two structures are in contact and their borders become obscured. Or one within another...can't see both, only the bigger one. (only for equal density structures)

Front 47

Pitfalls of x-ray interpretation

Back 47

1) don't know what is normal
2) tunnel vision
3) failure to evaluate whole x-ray