Essentials Of Psychology: Concepts And Applications

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Define Psychology

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science of behavior and mental processes

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Why is Psychology a science?

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It applies the scientific model in testing claims and beliefs in the light of available evidence

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Structuralism

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Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener - break down mental exp. into component parts - sensations, perceptions, and feelings

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Functionalism

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William James - explain our behavior in terms of the role it serves in helping us adapt to the environment.

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Behaviorism

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John Watson - psychology should limit itself to observable phenomena - namely, behavior

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Gestalt Psychology

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Max Wertheimer - belief that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of organized patterns or wholes

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Psychoanalysis

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Sigmund Freud - the role of underlying motives and conflicts in determining human behavior

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6 major contemporary perspectives

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behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, cognitive, sociocultural

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Behavioral perspective

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focuses on observable behavior and the influences of learning processes in behavior.

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Psychodynamic perspective

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based on Freud holds that our behavior & personalities are shaped by unconscious motives & conflicts that lie outside the range of ordinary awareness.

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Humanistic perspective

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views of Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow emphasized the importance of subjective conscious experience & personal freedom & responsibility

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Physiological perspective

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examines the ways in which behavior & mental experience are influenced by biological processes such as heredity, hormones, & the workings of the brain & other parts of the nervous system

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Cognitive perspective

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focuses on mental processes that allow us to gain knowledge about ourselves & the world

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Sociocultural perspective

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examines how our behavior & attitudes are shaped by social & cultural influences

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Basic vs applied research

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Basic - acquiring knowledge even if no direct application

Applied - attempts to find solutions to specific problems

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Experimental psychologists

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apply experimental methods to the study of behavior & mental processes

Comparative - study behavioral similarities & differences among animal species

Physiological - biological bases of behavior

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Clinical Psychologists

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evaluate & treat people w/ mental or psychological disorders (depression & anxiety)

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Counseling Psychologists

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help people clarify their goals & make life decisions or find ways of overcoming problems in various areas of their lives

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School psychologists

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evaluate & assist children w/ learning problems or other special needs

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Educational psychologists

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study issues relating to the measurement of intelligence & the processes involved in educational or academic achievement

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Developmental psychologists

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focus on processes involving physical cognitive, social, & personality development

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Personality psychologists

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study the psychological characteristics & behaviors that distinguish us as individuals & lead us to act consistently over time

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Social psychologists

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study group or social influences on behavior & attitude

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Environmental psychologists

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study relationships between the physical environment & behavior

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Industrial/Organizational psychologists

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study people's behavior at work

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Health psychologists

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focus on the relationship between psychological factors & physical health

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Consumer psychologists

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study why people purchase particular products & brands

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who founded the APA and when? Growth

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G. Stanley Hall in 1892, then 31 now 150,000

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Emerging fields of psychology

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Neuro - study relationships between the brain & behavior

Gero - focus on psychological processes involved in aging

Forensic - involved in the application of psychology to the legal system

Sport - apply psychology to understanding & improving athletic performanc

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1st African American doctorate in psychology

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Gilbert Jones 1909

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1st women PhD in psychology

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Margaret Washburn 1894

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Scientific Method (Q.H.T.C)

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careful observation & use of experimental methods

Q- develop a research question

H - frame the question in the form of a hypothesis

T - gather evidence to test the hypothesis

C - draw a conclusion about the hypothesis

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empirical approach

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developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence gathered from experiments & careful observation

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5 research methods

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case study, survey, naturalistic observation, correlational and experimental

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case study method

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in-depth study of one or more individuals

S - lots of info, lead to testable hypo

W - lack rigorous controls (memories can be distorted, withhold important info, deceive researcher, interviewers/observers may hear or see only what they want)

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survey method

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structured interviews or questionnaires are used to gather information about groups of people

S - great way to get a sampling of a population

W - gaps in people's memories, social desirability bias, and volunteer bias

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naturalistic observation method

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based on careful observation of behavior in natural settings

S - provide important insights into behavior as it occurs under natural conditions

W - lacks controls, preconceived ideas, acting different knowing they are being watched

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correlational method

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examine relationships between variables, which are expressed in the form of a statistical measure called a correlation coefficient

S - offers clues to underlying causes, increases understanding of relationships between variables

W - limited in specifying underlying causes

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Experimental method

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involving the manipulation of independent variables & observation or measurement of their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions

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independent/dependent variables

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I - manipulates

D - effects or outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the values of the independent variables

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Ethical practices

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- informed consent

- confidentiality

- animals