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229 Cards in this Set
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researchers and practitioners whose professional interest lies in the study of some aspect of human development
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developmentalists (developmental scientists)
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the scientific field covering all of human development
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lifespan development
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the scientific study of development from birth through adolescence (old psych specialty)
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child development
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the scientific study of the aging process and older adults (studied after WWII)
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gerontology
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the scientific study of the developing adult
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adult development
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is multidisciplinary, explores predictable human milestones, focuses on individual differences, explores the impact of life transitions and practices
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lifespan development
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predictable life changes that occur during development (starting school, retirement)
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normative transitions
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unpredictable or atypical life changes that occur during development (divorce, 9/11)
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non-normative transitions
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fundamental markers, including cohort, socioeconomic status, culture, and gender, that shape how we develop throughout the lifespan
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contexts of development
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the age group with whom we travel through life
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cohort
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the huge age group born between 1946 and 1964
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baby boom cohort
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the phase of life that begins after high school, tapers off toward the late twenties, and is devoted to constructing an adult life
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emerging adulthood
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a person's 50/50 chance at birth of living to a given age
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average life expectancy
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dramatic increase in average life expectancy that occurred during the first half of the twentieth century in the developed world
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20th c. life expectancy revolution
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biological limit of human life (~105 years)
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maximum lifespan
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people in their 60s and 70s
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young-old
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people age 80 and older
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old-old
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a basic marker referring to status on the education and--especially--income rungs
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socioeconomic status
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the most affluent countries in the world
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developed world
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the more impoverished countries of the world
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developing world
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societies that prize social harmony, obedience, and close family connectedness over individual achievement
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collectivist cultures
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societies that prize independence, competition, and personal success
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individualistic cultures
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any perspective explaining why people act the way they do, allowing us to predict behavior and suggest how to intervene to improve behavior
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theory
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biological or genetic causes of development
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nature
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a behavioral worldview that focuses on charting and modifying only "objective," externally visible behaviors
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traditional behaviorism
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according to the traditional behavioral perspective, the type of learning that determines any voluntary responses. Specifically, we act the way we do because we are reinforced for acting that way
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operant conditioning
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behavioral word for reward
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reinforcement
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a behavioral worldview that emphasizes that people learn by watching others and that our thoughts about the reinforces determine our behavior. Focus on charting and modifying people's thoughts.
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cognitive behaviorism (social learning theory)
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learning by watching and imitating others
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modeling
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according to cognitive behaviorism, an internal belief in our competence that predicts whether we initiate activities or persist in the face of failures, and predicts the goals we set
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self-efficacy
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theory formulated by John Bowlby, centering on the crucial importance to our species' survival of being closely connected with a caregiver during early childhood and being attached to a significant other during all of life
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attachment theory
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theory or worldview highlighting the role that inborn, species-specific behaviors play in human development and life
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evolutionary psychology
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field devoted to scientifically determining the role that hereditary forces play in determining individual differences in behavior
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behavioral genetics
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behavioral genetic research strategy, designed to determine the genetic contribution to a given trait, that involves comparing identical twins with fraternal twins (or with other people)
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twin study
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behavioral genetic research strategy, designed to determine the genetic contribution to a given trait, that involves comparing adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents
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adoption study
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behavioral genetic research strategy that involves comparing the experiences of identical twin pairs adopted into different places, to determine the genetic contribution to a given trait
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twin/adoption studies
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the nature-interacts-with-nurture principle that our genetic temperamental tendencies and predispositions evoke, or produce, certain responses from other people
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evocative forces
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the crucial principle that people affect one another, on that interpersonal influences flow in both directions
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bidirectionality
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the nature-interacts-with-nurture principle that our genetic temperamental tendencies and predispositions cause us to actively choose to put ourselves into specific environments
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active forces
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the extent to which the environment is tailored to our biological tendencies and talents
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person-environment fit
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Jean Piaget's principle that from infancy to adolescence, children progress through four qualitatively different stages of intellectual growth
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Piaget's cognitive developmental theory
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in Jean Piaget's theory, the first step promoting mental growth, involving fitting environmental input to our existing mental capacities
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assimilation
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in Piaget's theory, enlarging our mental capacities to fit input from the wider world
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accomodation
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in Erik Erikson's theory, each challenge that we face as we travel through the eight stages of the lifespan
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Erikson's psychosocial tasks
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an all-encompassing outlook on development that stresses the need to embrace a variety of theories, and the idea that all systems and processes interrelate
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developmental systems perspective
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a research strategy that involves relating two or more variables
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correlational study
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a group that reflects the characteristics of the overall population
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representative sample
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a measurement strategy that involves having people report on their feelings and activities through questionnaires (also ability tests and observer reports)
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naturalistic observation
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the only research strategy that can determine that something causes something else; involves randomly assigning people to different treatments and then looking at the outcome
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true experiments
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a developmental research strategy that involves testing different age groups at the same time
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cross-sectional study
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a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years
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longitudinal study
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standard developmental science data-collection strategy that involves testing groups of people and using numerical scales and statistics
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quantitative research
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occasional developmental science data-collection strategy that involves interviewing people to obtain information that cannot be quantified on a numerical scale
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qualitative research
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days 1-14, from fertilization to implantation (blastocyst implants itself on uterine wall)
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germinal stage
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week 3-8 (fastest paced) with construction of major organs
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embryonic stage
-neural tube forms the brain and spinal cord -neurons (nerve cells) are all formed |
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development principle that growth occurs from the most interior parts of the body outward
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proximodistal sequence
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development principle that growth occurs in a sequence from head to toe
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cephlocaudal sequence
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large structures and movements precede increasingly detailed refinements
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mass to specific sequence
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week 9 to birth. refining and elaborating features
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fetal stage
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earliest point a baby can be born ~22 weeks, when normal is 38 weeks
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age of viability
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gestation period is divided into
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trimesters
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1 in 10 have miscarriages. (1-5 for women over 30). morning sickness for 2/3. naturally not wanting to eat toxic foods, tenderness, headaches.
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first trimester (no norms for pregnancy)
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fetus is physically known. kicking.
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second trimester
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feeling the baby kick
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quickening
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backaches, cramps, insomnia, anticipation
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third trimester
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these mothers are likely to feel more depressed during pregnancy
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low income women
(feeling cared for makes for a healthier pregnancy) |
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these people feel stresses and pressures too and often don't have an outlet to express their feelings
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expectant fathers
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substance that crosses the placenta and harms the fetus (disease, medication, drugs, pollution). these substances are most dangerous during the embryonic stage, but can hurt brain all throughout pregnancy
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teratogen
(only 4% of babies have birth defects--physical or neurological) |
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time when certain developmental process is occurring or a body structure is most vulnerable to damage by a teratogen
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sensitive period
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learning impairments and behavioral problems, delays in milestones, often caused by teratogens in second and third trimesters
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developmental disorders
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can be from an unusual number of chromosomes or a specific faulty gene
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genetic birth defects (normal is 46 chromosomes)
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most common chromosomal abnormality, mental retardation, physical features. typically occurs because of a cell division error called disjunction (chromosome 21) more likely for older moms
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down syndrome
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illness caused by a single gene, can be dominant, recessive, or sex-linked
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single gene disorder
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illness child gets w/ one copy of the abnormal gene for the disorder
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dominant disorder
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two copies of abnormal gene required for disorder
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recessive disorder
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illness on mother's X chromosome that typically leaves female offspring unaffected but has a fifty-fifty chance of striking each male child
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sex-linked single-gene disorder
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blood test to identify carriers
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genetic testing
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discusses risks for disorders and treatments
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genetic counselor
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risky first trimester test for genetic disorders (fatal kind) by withdrawing part of placenta
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chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
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second trimester (safer) test involving using a syringe to get some amniotic fluid and test conditions
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amniocentesis
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inability to conceive after one year of unprotected sex (not always woman's fault)
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infertility
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infertility treatment in which egg is fertilized outside the womb
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assisted reproductive technology (ART)
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developing cell mass is inserted into the uterus (most widely used) after fertility drugs are given--defects more likely. expensive. 1/3 chance.
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in vitro fertilization
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before birth
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contractions cause cervix to expand. fetus enters birth canal.
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baby's scalp appears
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crowning
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through incision in abdominal wall and uterus. common in some countries because there is less pain, but it can be costly
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c-section
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measuring baby's heart rate, muscle tone, respiration, reflex response, and color (each on a scale of 0-2. 7 is good.)
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Apgar scale
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less than 5.5 lbs.
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low birth weight (LBW)
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less than 3.25 lbs.
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very low birth weight (VLBW)
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treats at-risk newborns
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neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
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death during first year of life
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infant mortality
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outer folded mantle of the brain responsible for thinking, reasoning, perceiving, and all conscious responses
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cerebral cortex
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a long nerve fiber that usually conducts impulses away from the cell body of a neuron
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axon
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a branching fiber that receives information and conducts impulses toward the cell body of a neuron
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dendrite
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the gap between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon of another, over which impulses flow
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synapse
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forming of connections between neurons at the synapses. This process, responsible for all perceptions, actions and thoughts, is most intense during infancy and childhood but continues throughout life
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synaptogenesis--followed by synaptic pruning and neural death
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formation of a fatty layer encasing the axons of neurons. This process, which speeds the transmission of neural impulses, continues from birth to early adulthood
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myelination
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brain growth during 2 years of life
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25-75% of final weight
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malleable or capable of being changed (brain)
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plastic
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facts about brain
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neurons genetically programmed for one thing can strengthen other abilities if that thing isn't used. development unfolds over time. stimulation sculpts neurons. mental growth is lifelong.
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the automatic, spontaneous sucking movements newborns produce, especially when anything touches their lips
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sucking reflex
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newborns' automatic response to a touch on the cheek, involving turning toward that location and beginning to suck
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rooting reflex
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a response or action that is automatic and programmed by noncortical braincenters (later replaced by voluntary processes)
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reflex
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breast feeding
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toddlers are picky eaters to avoid poisoning themselves. breast milk is generally better and makes children smarter, but if mothers have HIV, they have to be careful not to transmit it. (6 mos. of breast feeding is recommended by WHO). many moms stop to go back to work
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a chronic lack of adequate food
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undernutrition
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excessively short stature in a child, caused by chronic lack of adequate nutrition
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stunting
(underdeveloped countries' children often are undernourished due to income) |
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crying
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at month 4, babies start crying to express their needs. crying helps w/ bonding parent to child
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a baby's frantic, continual crying during the first three months of life; caused by an immature digestive system (smokers)
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colic
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wrapping a baby tightly in a blanket or garment. calming during infancy (skin to skin or sucking is usually better though)
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swaddling
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carrying a young baby in a sling close to the caregiver's body. this technique can soothe an infant
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kangaroo care
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sleep for newborns
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18 hours a day, but wail every 3-4 hours
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decreases as infants mature
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REM rapid eye movement sleep
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children's ability, usually beginning at 6 mos., to put themselves back to sleep when they wake up during the night (no baby sleeps thru)
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self-soothing
(connection between irritable parents and baby sleep problems) (debate between behaviorists and Bowlby/Erikson on letting children "cry it out." Probably best to comfort initially, then wean, but always respond to frantic crying. |
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standard custom in collectivist cultures of having a child and parent share a bed
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co-sleeping
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unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant, often while sleeping, during first year of life
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sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
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a research technique to explore early infant sensory capacities and cognition, drawing on the principle that we are attracted to novelty and prefer to look at new things
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preferential-looking paradigm
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the predictable loss of interest that develops once a stimulus becomes familiar; used to explore infant sensory capabilities
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habituation
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eyesight of baby
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20/400--legally blind in some states. this ends by age 1.
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the principle that we see an object as being the same size regardless of its distance from us (babies have this)
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size constancy
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research using preferential looking and habituation to explore what very young babies know about faces (they like symmetry, mom, more attractive people/babies, people looking at them)
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face perception studies
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the ability to see and fear heights
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depth perception
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a table that appears to end in a drop off at its midpoint; used to test for infant depth perception. fear of heights comes w/ mobility and crawling.
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visual cliff
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lift head, sit up, walk, pick up/grasp.
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motory milestones (helped with nurture, but don't necessarily imply intelligence)
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making the home safe for a newly mobile infant
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baby proofing (exploring = better understanding, repetition, accomodation)
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Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to age 2 when babie's agenda is to pin down the basics of physical reality (assimilate, accomodate)
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sensorimotor stage
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repetitive action-oriented schemas (or habits) characteristic of babies during the sensorimotor stage
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circular reactions
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the first infant habits during the sensorimotor stage, centered on the body (thumb suck)
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primary circular reactions
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habits of the sensorimotor stage lasting from about four months to one year, centered on exploring the external world (grab toys)
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secondary circular reactions
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"little scientist" activities of the sensorimotor stage, beginning around age 1, involving flexibly exploring the properties of objects (throwing toys, spitting food, flushing things down the toilet)
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tertiary circular reactions
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around age 1, babies use TCR to explore properties of objects, experimenting like scientists
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little scientist phase
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performing a different action to get to a goal--an ability that emerges in the sensorimotor stage as babies approach age 1 (light switch, door knob, unwrap cookie)
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means-end behavior (Piaget)
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understanding that objects continue to exist even when we can no longer see them, which gradually emerges during the sensorimotor stage
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object permanence (Piaget)
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classic mistake made by infants in the sensorimotor stage, whereby babies approaching age 1 go back to the original hiding place to look for an object even though they have seen it get hidden in a second place
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A-not-B error (Piaget) (this ends during terrible twos)
(desire for make believe play shows that a child is making the transition to symbolic thought) |
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flaw in Piaget's theory
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it doesn't explain why babies remember cat in the hat. critics say that babies understand more complex concepts and reality. also, that it's a gradual process.
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perspective on understanding cognition in which mental processes are seen as analogous to the way a computer analyzes data, w/ steps including sensory input, storage, and output
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information processing theory
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end of sensorimotor period (according to Piaget)
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onset of language
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rules and word-arranging systems that every human language employs to communicate meaning
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grammar
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Chomsky's term for a hypothetical brain structure that enables our species to learn and produce language
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language acquisition device (LAD)
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word reinforcement, works for which language (English)
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Skinner
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approach to language development that emphasizes its social function, specifically that babies and adults have a mutual passion to communicate
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social-interactionist view
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alternating vowel and consonant sounds that babies repeat with variations of intonation and pitch and that precede the first words
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babbling
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first clear evidence of language, when babies use a single word to communicate a sentence or complete thought
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holophrase
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first stage of combining words in infancy, in which a baby pares down a sentence to its essential words
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telegraphic speech
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simplified, exaggerated, high-pitched tones that adults and children universally use to speak to infants as a way of teaching them language (baby talk)
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infant-directed speech (IDS)
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ask a question, develop hypothesis, collect data, analyze data, draw conclusion, diseminate (publish) findings
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scientific method
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in depth examination of single person or cultural concept (subjective). lots of data from one person. (can't generalize) (case study)
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qualitative
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bigger sample, more objective, surveys, experiments, provides data and statistics
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quantitative
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people you're interested in knowing something about, you can generalize through the sample
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population
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people that complete the study
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sample
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measure two variables and look at how they relate to each other. association.
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correlational
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identify causation. control and modified variable. must manipulate a variable. randomly assign.
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experimental
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comparing people of different ages at the same time
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cross-sectional
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follows the same group of people over their life time. benefit to knowing histories of these people.
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longitudinal
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group of kids at different ages, but follow all of these groups over time. detects the influence of current events. (expensive)
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cross-sequential
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underlying variable you're interested in (student motivation)
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construct
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interview, questionnaire
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self-report (indicator)
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naturalistic (unstructured), structured (coding sheet with objective indicators)
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observation (indicator)
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collect saliva, hormones, eye blinks, heart rate
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physiological (indicator)
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identify relative brain region
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neuroimaging (indicator)
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bond of long between caregiver and child
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attachment
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transitional stage after babyhood, from 1-2.5 yrs of age--defined by intense attachment to caregivers and urgent need to become independent
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toddlerhood
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closest person in a child's life
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primary caregiver
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acting to maintain physical contact or to be close to an attachment figure (whenever survival is threatened at any age)
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proximity-seeking behavior
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first of Bowlby's developmental attachment sequence, during first three months of life, when infants show no visible signs of attachment
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preattachment phase
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first real smile at 2 mos in response to any face
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social smile
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2nd phase, 4-7 mos., infants show a slight preference for their primary caregiver
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attachment in the making
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critical period for human attachment, 7 mos.--toddlerhood, characterized by separation anxiety, the need to have a caregiver physically close, and stranger close
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clear-cut (focused) attachment
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main signal of clear-cut attachment at 7 mos., when a baby gets visibly upset by a primary caregiver's departure
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separation anxiety
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signal of the onset of clear-cut attachment at 7 mos. when a baby becomes wary of unfamiliar people and refuses to be held by anyone other than a primary caregiver
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stranger anxiety
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a baby's practice of checking back and monitoring a caregiver's expressions for cues as to how to behave in potentially dangerous situations; linked to crawling and clear-cut attachment
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social referencing
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the mental representation of a caregiver that allows children beyond age 3 to be physically apart from a primary caregiver and predicts their behavior in relationships
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working model (Bowlby)
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procedure developed by Ainsworth to measure variations in attachment security at age 1, involving a series of planned separations and reunions w/ a primary caregiver
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Strange Situation
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ideal attachment response when a 1 year old child responds with joy at being reunited with the primary caregiver in the Strange Situation
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secure attachment
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deviation from normally joyful response to being reunited w/ primary caregiver in S.S., signaling a problem in the caregiver-child relationship
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insecure attachment
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insecure attachment style characterized by a child's indifference to the primary caregiver when they are reunited in the S.S.
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avoidant attachment
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insecure attachment style characterized by a child's intense distress at separation and by anger and great difficulty being soothed when reunited with the primary caregiver in the S.S.
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anxious-ambivalent attachment
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insecure attachment style characterized by responses such as freezing or fear when a child is reunited with primary caregiver in the S.S.
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disorganized attachment
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reciprocal aspect of the attachment relationship with a caregiver and infant responding emotionally to each other in a sensitive, exquisitely attuned way
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synchrony
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a person's characteristic, inborn style of dealing with the world
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temperament
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mom is too depressed to connect, child has temperamental vulnerabilities, caregiver's other attachment relationships make it difficult to connect (bad marriage)
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paths to insecure attachment
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a federal program offering high-quality day care at a center and other services to help preschoolers aged 3-5 from low income families prepare for school
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head start
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like head start, but for kids under 3
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early head start
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neighbor or relative cares for a small number of children in her home for a fee
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family day care
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large number of children are cared for at a licensed facility by paid providers
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day care center
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Erikson's toddlerhood to 1-2yrs
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autonomy vs. shame and doubt
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toddlers confront the challenge of understanding that they are separate individuals
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autonomy
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feelings of pride, shame, or guilt, which first emerge in toddlerhood and show the capacity to reflect on the self
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self-conscious emotions
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process by which children are taught to obey the norms of society and to behave in socially appropriate ways
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socialization
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an ineffective socialization strategy that involves yelling, screaming, or hitting out in frustration at a child
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power assertion
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ideal parenting that involves arranging children's environments to suit their temperaments, minimizing their vulnerabilities and accentuating their strengths
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goodness of fit
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a process of age-related changes across the lifespan
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development (lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, involves growth and maintenance)
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change stimulated from within, active
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organismic theories
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change stimulated by environment, passive
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mechanistic theories
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gradually adding on more (quantitative)
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continuous development
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stages--qualitative stages
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discontinuous development
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children must confront conflicts between inner needs and drives and external demands/expectations
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Erikson's psychodynamic (8 stages) emphasized ego over id.
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biological needs, requires immediate gratification, pleasure
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id
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conscious, rational, problem-solving, controls urges
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ego
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moral/ethical component
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superego
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an awareness of how thinking works
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metacognition
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-focuses on how culture is transmitted
-high mental functions grow out of social interactions and dialogues -cognitive development as a socially mediated process |
Vgotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory
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genes, biology and environment interactions
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developmental neuroscience perspective
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the complete set of genes that comprise one's heredity
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genotype
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the physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interaction of one's genes and the environment
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phenotype
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a threadlike strand located in each cell's nucleus that carries the genes
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chromosome (23 matching pairs in each cell)
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regular pairs--22 out of 23
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autosomes
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23rd pair--determines sex of child
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sex chromosomes (xx = female, xy = male. father's sperm determines sex)
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a double helix shaped molecule composed of 4 chemical compounds
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DNA (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine)
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a segment of DNA along the length of a chromosome that contains the chemical blueprint for making particular proteins
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gene (humans have 30,000)
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the building blocks of life
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protein (order of chemical compounds determines what protein a gene will make)
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genes must be "turned on" (often by the environment) in order to form proteins
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expression
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gene pairs
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alleles
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when the allele pair are the same gene
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homozygous
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when the allele pair are different genes
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heterozygous
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child will express both alleles; the effects will be intermediate between the characteristics of children who are homozygous for each of the two alleles (pink carnation)
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incomplete dominance
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trait is determined by two allele, but the outcome is qualitatively different from the trait produced by either of the contributing alleles (blood type A and B produce AB)
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co-dominance
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multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic
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polygenic inheritance (most psychological conditions)
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potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in that expression of a genetic trait
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range of reaction
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measure of ability of a genotype to produce the same phenotype regardless of the type of environment (cystic fibrosis regardless of stress or other environment effects)
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canalization
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athletic parents raise their children with sports
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passive genotype/environment correlations
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child's actions cause parents to react in a way that shapes environment. misbehavior --> yelling
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evocative genotype/ environment correlations
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individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predispositions (finding clubs of interest and meeting kids with similar interests)
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niche-picking
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the moment during a woman's monthly cycle when the ovum (egg) is expelled from the ovary
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ovulation (ovum survives 24-48 hours. sperm cells survive 2-6 days)
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union of sperm and ovum; conception. usually occurs in fallopian tube
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fertilization
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fertilized egg that takes three days to become blastocyst (only 20-33% of fertilized eggs)
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zygote
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cells on inside of blastocyst become new organism. ectoderm- nervous system, skin, sense organs. mesoderm- muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, excretory system. endoderm- inner digestive system, lungs, glands. cells on outside of blastocyst become life support systems
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embryonic disk / trophoblast
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protective sac--encases organism in amniotic fluid, a cushion and temperature regulator
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amnion
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partial filter--permits food and oxygen to reach organism and waste products to be carried away
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placenta
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structure that connects placenta to developing organism through which nutrients are passed and waste is removed
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umbilical cord
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