Cbt: Biological Science

Front 1

Draw of out some nitrogen structure, and make sure to include the following: What is an amine? Does it function better as a nucleophile or electrophile? What is an amide? What is imide? What is an imine? What is an enamine? What is aniline?

Back 1

Amines are basic functional groups that contain a nitrogen with a lone pair (ex. NH3). In their deprotonated form, they can be good nucleophiles, but are poor leaving groups and bad electrophiles. An amide is nitrogen group bound to a carbonyl carbon. If instead of one acyl group, we have two acyl group then the compound is an imide. In contrast, an imine features a nitrogen in a double bond with carbon. Lastly, an enamine is an amine followed by a nitrogen. A special type of enamine is aniline has an amine bound to a benzene ring.

Front 2

CH3C6H4SO2Cl

Back 2

Tosylate group, which is a strong leaving group. Can easily be converted from alcohol.

Front 3

How many chiral centers are required for a diastereomer?

Back 3

At least two.

Front 4

Which nuerotransmitter increases insulin secretion?

Back 4

Acetylcholine

Front 5

Lewis acid

Back 5

Electron acceptor

Front 6

Lewis base

Back 6

Electron donor

Front 7

Is an alkene more of a lewis acid or a lewis base?

Back 7

More of a lewis base, because the pi electrons in the double bond can acts nucleophiles.

Front 8

Where are the youngest and oldest sib located in pedigree notation?

Back 8

On the left is oldest, while on the right is the youngest.

Front 9

Genotype and phenotype for RR crossed with rr.

Back 9

Genotype: 0:1:0; Phenotype: 1:0

Front 10

Genotype and phenotype for Rr crossed with Rr.

Back 10

Genotype: 1:2:1; Phenotype: 3:1

Front 11

Genotype and phenotype for RR crossed with Rr.

Back 11

Genotype: 1:1:0; Phenotype: 1:0

Front 12

Genotype and phenotype for Rr crossed with rr.

Back 12

Genotype: 0:1:1; Genotype: 1:1

Front 13

How can we be sure that a disease is x linked recessive?

Back 13

The effected female could only have effected sons.

Front 14

How can we be sure that a disease is not x lined dominant?

Back 14

The effected father cannot pass it on to his son.

Front 15

Function of bile salts

Back 15

Prevent monoglycerides and free fatty acid from forming lipid dropblets (due to their insolubility), and combine them to form water soluble micelles.

Front 16

Function pancreatic lipase

Back 16

Digest fats at the surface of lipid droplets in the intestine.

Front 17

Function of intestinal bicarbonate

Back 17

Neutralize acid produced by the stomach.

Front 18

Function of amylase

Back 18

Degrade carbohydrates in the stomach.

Front 19

Where is the chloride concentration greatest?

Back 19

In the extracellular fluid

Front 20

Function of bile salts

Back 20

Prevent monoglycerides and free fatty acid from forming lipid dropblets (due to their insolubility), and combine them to form water soluble micelles.

Front 21

Function pancreatic lipase

Back 21

Digest fats at the surface of lipid droplets in the intestine.

Front 22

Function of intestinal bicarbonate

Back 22

Neutralize acid produced by the stomach.

Front 23

Function of amylase

Back 23

Degrade carbohydrates in the stomach.

Front 24

Where is the chloride concentration greatest?

Back 24

In the extracellular fluid

Front 25

Which organelle is most associated with the synthesis of transmembrane proteins?

Back 25

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Front 26

What value in the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation tells us the receive genotype frequency?

Back 26

The equation goes as p2 +2pq+q2, where the q2 is the frequency of the recessive allele.

Front 27

Conjugation

Back 27

A form of genetic exchange in bacteria, whereby two bacteria cells joined by a conjugate bridge exchange single stranded DNA. The conjugate bridge is known as a philus, and plasmid F factor is needed to code for it.

Front 28

Transformation

Back 28

A type of genetic exchange in bacteria whereby DNA is simply taken up by bacterial cells.

Front 29

Transduction

Back 29

Type of genetic exchange in bacteria, whereby bacteriophages are involved in injecting new DNA into bacterial cells.

Front 30

Translocation

Back 30

The exchange of genetic material between two nonhomologous chromosomes.

Front 31

Transposition

Back 31

A type of translocation in which one portion of chromosome is inserted into another chromosome.

Front 32

Reciprocal translocation

Back 32

A type of translocation in which the ends of chromosomes are exchanged.

Front 33

Template Strand

Back 33

The sequence that is copied during mRNA synthesis.

Front 34

Coding Sequence

Back 34

The DNA strand that bases directly corresponding to the mRNA sequence and the codons that are translated.

Front 35

In gel electrophoresis, where do anions migrate? Where do cations migrate?

Back 35

Anions migrate to the anode, while cations migrate to the cathode.

Front 36

How do you determine the isoelectric point of an acidic amino acid?

Back 36

The average of the pK1 (2 to 5) and the pK of the chain.

Front 37

How do you determine the isoelectric point of a basic amino acid?

Back 37

The average of the pK of the side chain and the pK3 (9 to 9.5).

Front 38

What are the basic amino acids?

Back 38

Arg, Hist, Lys

Front 39

In order of water and solutes to reabsorbed by the kidney, where must they go after the loop of Helene?

Back 39

Peritubular capillaries

Front 40

What is classic taxonomic hierarchy?

Back 40

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Specie


King Philip Came Over From Great Spain

Front 41

What is the best way to describe the conversion of a ketone to a ketal?

Back 41

Acid catalyzed substitution

Front 42

How do you protect ketone groups? How about alcohols? In both cases what is the mechanism for removing the protecting group?

Back 42

Ketone groups are normally protected with a 1,2 diol. Meanwhile, alcohols are protected with trialkysilylchloride.The mechanism for removing either the 1,2 diol or the trialkysilylchloride is acid- catalyzed hydrolysis. This is important to note because you need to make sure the subsequent reactions do not include acids that would otherwise remove the protecting group; this explains why KMnO4 maybe chosen over CrO3 in an oxidation reaction.

Front 43

Describe the structure of lactic acid? How many peaks would it should in an HNMR?

Back 43

Lactic acid has 3 carbons making up a methly group, a carbon attached to an alcohol, and another in a carboxylic acid. In HNMR, would would expect to see 4 peaks (CH3, OH, CH, CO2H).

Front 44

In a gel buffer at a pH of 7, where do basic amino acids travels? How about acidic amino acid?

Back 44

Basic amino acids carry a positive charge at pH of 7, and travel to the cathode. In contrast, acidic amino acids carry negative charge at pH of 7, and travel to the anode.

Front 45

What is releases by the parietal cells? What stimulates them to secrete this molecule?

Back 45

Gastrin stimulates the parietal cells to release Hydrochloric Acid. Food neutralized the stomach acid, increasing the pH, which leads to an increase in gastrin levels to compensate. In contrast, too low of a pH results in a negative feedback, which inhibits the release of gastrin, bringing pH back up to its normal level of 3.

Front 46

What are the reactants and products of the reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase? What is the product converted into and where is its final destination?

Back 46

The reactants are water and carbon dioxide. The product is carbonic acid, which quickly dissociates in bicarbonate and hydronium. The bicarbonate is then carried by the blood to lungs where its released in the form of carbon dioxide.

Front 47

What enzyme is responsible for breaking down proteins into small peptides? What enzyme is responsible for breaking down complex polysaccharides into simpler forms? Specifically, what kind of linkages can this enzyme breakdown? Include both names for this enzyme.

Back 47

Pepsin is responsible for breaking down proteins. Ptyalin, also known as alpha-amylase, is involved in breaking down polysaccharides. It's found both in pancreatic juice and in saliva. The type of linkage that it can cleave is alpha-1-4 linkage.

Front 48

What is the function of cholecystokinin (CCK)? What kind of molecule is it?

Back 48

Cholecystokinin is a hormone responsible for the increasing pancreatic enzyme secretion, and it released from the small intestine.

Front 49

What kind of saccharides are maltose and lactose? What are they made of? What kind of bond connects them?

Back 49

Both maltose and lactose are disaccharides. The difference between the two is that maltose is made of glucose molecules connected via alpha 1-4 linkage, while lactose is made of glucose and galactose connected via beta 1-4 linkage.

Front 50

Compare and contrast LiAlH4 and NaBH4?

Back 50

LiAlH4 is capable of reducing both ketones, aldehydes, and carbonyls with leaving groups. In constrast, NaBH4 is weaker and can only reduce ketones and aldehydes. The difficulty of reducing carbonyls with leaving groups is that the leaving group is electron donating and reduces the electrophilicity. The advantage of NaBH4 comes from its selectivity; image a mechanism where you only want to reduce a ketone or aldehyde, and not the other carbonyls.

Front 51

What are the three phases in the growth of most organisms in a dish?

Back 51

Log phase with exponential growth due to excessive nutrients. Stationary phase, and then death phase as nutrients run out and waste products build up.

Front 52

How does calcium promote contraction in the muscles? Where are the channels responsible for secreting calcium in the muscle cells? How can be experimentally test for what occurs in its absence?

Back 52

Calcium promotes contraction by binding to troponin, unlocking tropomyosins, and allowing myosin to accesses the actin filaments. The calcium is housed in the sarcoplamsic reticulum. By using a Calcium-specific chelator such as EDTA, we see how in the absence of Calcium muscle contraction stops.

Front 53

What are the hormones releases by pituitary gland? What kind of molecule is each?

Back 53

We can remember this if we remember to Pao A Flat Pg! The posterior pituitary makes ADH (also known as vasopressin) and Oxyotocin. Meanwhile, the anterior pituitary is responsible for FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, GH.

Front 54

How is the retrovirus enzyme introduced?

Back 54

It is brought into the host by the retrovirus.

Front 55

Where does the Kreb cycle occur in prokaryotes?

Back 55

Since prokaryotes have no membrane bound organelles, they have no mitochondria. Therefore, metabolic processes (such as glycolysis and Kreb cycle) have to occurs in the cytosol.

Front 56

In the Krebs cycle, the acetyl portion of one molecule of acetyl-CoA is ultimately oxidized to form two molecules of CO2. How many electrons does the acetyl group lose in this process?

Back 56

8 electrons. We can get to this number by either noticing that the oxidation state of one of the carbons changes from +3 to +4, and the other from -3 to +4, or by noticing that 4 electron carriers are involved in carrying 2 electrons each to the ETC.

Front 57

A broad peak in an HNMR is a dead give away of what kind of functional group?

Back 57

Broad peaks hint at hydrogen bonding, and the only groups that can undergo hydrogen bonding at OH, NH and FH groups.

Front 58

Speaking of special amino acids, describe pyroglutamate and prolinamide?

Back 58

Pyroglutamate has a modification on its N terminus whereby the side chain has reacted with the amino group. In prolinamide, there's a modification at the C terminus. Here, the an amino group has bonded to the carboxylic acid.

Front 59

Talk isomers! First, what is an isomer? What are the two most classification of isomers? What is an epimer? What is an anomer?

Back 59

An isomer is a structure with the same atom composition. There are two types of isomers: structural (constitutional) and steroisomers. Structural isomers have different bond connectivity. Meanwhile, steroisomers have different spatial arrangements. If these steroisomers can be identical by rotation about a sigma, then they are conformers. If they cannot, they are configuration isomers. These configuration isomers can either be geometrical (caused by a pi bond) or optical (caused by asymmetry). Geometrical isomers are either enantiomers (exactly opposite - non superimposable mirror images) or diasteromers. Finally, epimers and anomers are used to describe sugars. Epimers are sugars that vary at one chiral center, while anomers vary at the anomeric (or the most oxidized) carbon.

Front 60

Describe the three anatomically distinct regions of the ear. Trace the movement of sound through the ear. What is another name of the eardrum? What are the ossicles of the inner ear?

Back 60

The regions of the ear are the external, middle, and inner ear. Incoming sound is received by the external portion of the ear and funnel through the external auditory canal to the eardrum, or also know as they tympanic membrane. Vibration of the eardrum causes movement of the ossicles of the inner ear. These are the malleus, incus and staples. The staples is attached to the oval window. Oscillation in the oval window cause traveling waves to form in perilymph of the cochlea. The movement of the fluid causes movement of hair cells in the organ of Corti, generating action potential that travel to the brain.

Front 61

What causes Down Syndrome?

Back 61

Nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis I, whereby one daughter receives an extra copy of a chromosome and the other daughter receives none.

Front 62

At what stage do female eggs arrest in development? When is this arrest removed? What are some of the consequences that are unique to this form of gamete development?

Back 62

Female gametes are arrested at Prophase I of Meiosis. This arrest is removed a puberty, where they female starts to produce haploid secondary oocytes. By the time of birth, these oocytes maybe years old, potentially causing various genetic problems such as nondisjunction.

Front 63

What is rearrangement in organic chemistry? When does it occur?

Back 63

Rearrangement is associated with the carbocation intermediate in SN1 reactions to form the most stable product. This is distinct from the 5 ligand transition state that forms in SN1 reactions.

Front 64

What are the two phases of the female ovarian cycle? Describe what occurs at each phase and what hormones are secreted at the highest concentration? How does the feedback work?

Back 64

The two phases are the follicular and luteal phase. During the follicular phase the primary oocytes develops into a secondary follicle containing the primary oocyte, and then a tertiary follicle containing a secondary oocyte. The secondary oocyte ovulates with high levels of LH and FSH. After ovulation, the tertiary oocyte becomes the corpus luteum and releases estrogen and progesterone. These inhibit the GnRH from the hypothalamus, and therefore the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary.

Front 65

How can an epoxide be reduced? By what kind of mechanism does the reaction proceed? Where does the nucleophilic attack occur? What's the required work up?

Back 65

An epoxide can be reduced to an alcohol by adding LiAlH4 reagent with water work up. The reaction proceeds via SN2 at the less substituted carbon of the epoxide with inversion of sterochemistry.

Front 66

How can we counteract the effect of a competitive inhibitor? How about a noncompetitive inhibitor?

Back 66

With competitive inhibitors, we can increase the concentration of of endogenous molecule. In contrast, the concentrations of other molecules will effect a non competitive inhibitor. The best option is increase metabolism with the hopes of elimination from the body.

Front 67

How are the daughter cells divided after the meiotic division of the oocyte?

Back 67

Of the four daughter cell that are produced, one becomes the oocyte, while the other three become polar bodies. Most of the cytoplasm goes to the daughter cells that are destined to be the oocyte, while a small fraction goes to the polar bodies.

Front 68

When is protonation of an carbonyl oxygen required before nucleopilic attack?

Back 68

Protonation is required when the nucleophile is anything weaker than a amine. This would included alcohols and esters.

Front 69

What is the equivalent of capillaries in an open circulatory system? Where is the blood pumped by the heart.

Back 69

The blood pumped by the heart flows into open capillaries known as blood filled sinuses.

Front 70

Which germ layer gives raise to the nervous system? What about the digestive system? What about blood?

Back 70

The mesoderm gives raise to both the blood and the digestive system. The nervous system and the skin originate for the ectoderm.

Front 71

Where is bile produced? Where is it stored? What is their function?

Back 71

Bile is produce in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Its made function is to help with the digestion of fatty acids, which it performs by associating at one end with the hydrophobic fatty acid and at the other with aqueous digestive solution in the gut. This form an emulsion of tiny droplets dispersed in digestive juice facilitating digestion.

Front 72

How does sweet move through the epidermis? How can we avoid water loss through this process?

Back 72

The epidermis is made of dead cells, keratin and oil rendering it impermeable. How can sweet pass this layer? Sweet glands have special channels that allow sweet through. The sweet secreting, water permeable cells are separated from the dry air with pores.

Front 73

What is super-heating? How can it be avoided?

Back 73

Super-heating occurs when a liquid does not boil at the boiling temperature due to surface tension. This tension can be broken with the addition of boiling chips or an ebuillator.

Front 74

What happens to the boiling point of two tested materials if there's a leak in the distillation tube?

Back 74

The boiling points of both materials will increase. How come? The boiling point is reached when the vapor pressure reaches 1 atm. The vapor pressure of a liquid increases with increasing temperature. Therefore, if the vapor pressure dropped because of a leak, the boiling point would increase.

Front 75

Explain some of different types of behavioral learning. What is imprinting? What is habituation? What is conditioning? What is operant condition?

Back 75

Imprinting is when a perception of an object is enhanced in some way early in development. Habituation is non-dissociative learning, which results when the response to stimulus decreases over time. Classical condition is an associative learning when a stimulus is associated with some outcome. Operant condition is the performance of an act with the anticipation of a reward.

Front 76

Which kind of cycloalkane has the lowest combustion energy per CH2 group?

Back 76

Cyclohexane because it has the lowest potential energy. This is achieved by the chair conformation that minimizes torsional, steric and ring strain.

Front 77

Describe the area where glomerulus filtration occurs.

Back 77

Blood leaves the afferent tubules and enters the golomerulus capillaries. These capillaries are lined with capillary endothelium. These tuft of capillaries buldge into the capsular space (also known as the Bowman's capsule) that's lined with simple squamous epithelium. From there, the blood enters the kidney tubules.

Front 78

What is plasma clearance? What would happen to the plasma clearance of a molecule blood pressure dropped? How would this be reflected in the concentration of the compound in the urine?

Back 78

The plasma clearance refers to the capacity of the kidney to remove a substance from the plasma. When blood pressure drops, the glomerular filtration rate drops. This increases the time for re-absorption on the molecule and, therefore less of the molecule will appear in the urine.

Front 79

What can postmenopausal women expect with estrogen and progesterone therapy?

Back 79

Recurrence of periodic menstrual cycles. The therapy would counteract normal aging which results in ovaries becoming less sensitive to the release of gonadtropins.

Front 80

What hormones regulate the levels calcium in the blood? What are their functions?

Back 80

The two hormones are parathyroid and calcitonin. The function of calcitonin is take calcium out of blood and both it into bone. In contrast, parathyroid removes calcium from the bones. You can recall this by remembering Calciton-in and parathroid-rid.

Front 81

What is the final product of an aldol condensation reaction? What is the product right before elimination?

Back 81

An aldol condensation takes a ketone, and produces a final alpha, beta unsaturatedketone. This results after the loss of a water molecule a beta-hydroxy ketone.

Front 82

What is revealed by the idoform test? What is revealed by the Br2/CCl4 test?

Back 82

The idoform reaction tests for the presence of a methyl ketone. The Br2/CCl4 test for the presence of carbon-carbon double bonds.

Front 83

How can the function of a catalysis be altered?

Back 83

By changing its 3D structure either through changing temperature or the pH.

Front 84

How many tripeptides can be formed by three amino acids?

Back 84

3! or 6

Front 85

We know that the addition of norepinephrine increase the rate of heart contraction. The frequency of contraction is dependent on what factor? How would this factor change in order to increase the rate of contraction?

Back 85

The frequency can be increase by shortening the refractory period. This can be accomplished by decreasing the depolarization time.

Front 86

What is present in the goiter? What is produced here? What's its function? How are these hormones controlled?

Back 86

The goiter is associated with the thyroid. The thyroid controls how the body uses energy, and makes proteins. It produces T3 and T4, which are involved in metabolism. It also produces calcitonin. These hormones are controlled from the anterior pituitary which generates Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Front 87

Which hormone(s) and structures are responsible for the increase in thickness of the endometrial lining of the uterus.

Back 87

Estrogen and progesterone which are produced from thecal cells during the follicular phase.

Front 88

There's one tube and two different types of cells involved in spermatogenesis. Describe where these cells are found, and their functions. Where are sperm stored?

Back 88

Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules. Within the tubules, we find the sertoli cells. The spermatogonia are formed in the tubules, and therefore most associated with the sertoli cells. Outside the tubules is the interstitial space where we can find the Leydig cells, whose function is production of testosterone. The sperm are then stored in the epididymis on the surface of the testis.

Front 89

How many electrons are gained from the addition of a hydrogen atom in reduction?

Back 89

One electron per hydrogen added.

Front 90

IR results show a sharp band. What kind of functional groups can be automatically rule out?

Back 90

Any group that would be form hydrogen bonds, and thus display a broad band. These would include only NH, OH and HF.

Front 91

How do you synthesize and ester? From what reactants? How do you hydrolyze an ester? What is this process called? What are the products?

Back 91

An ester can be formed by acid catalyzed reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic group. It can be hydrolyzed in a base, which is called saponification. Acid work up then yields an alcohol and a carboxylic group.

Front 92

What is function of the large intestine? What are the major components? Where is the site of major caloric intake?

Back 92

The function of the large intestine is absorption of ions and water. This contrast with the small intestine (in specific the ileum and jejunum), where carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are absorbed. The major components of the small intestine are the colon (which includes the appendix), rectum and cecum.

Front 93

What are platelets?

Back 93

They are small, irregularly shaped cell fragments, involved in homeostasis, leading to the formation of blood clots.

Front 94

What is the function of aldosterone? What kind of hormones is it? Where does it act? Where is it produced? What stimulates its production?

Back 94

Aldosterone works at the distal tubule for active re-absorption of water and sodium at the collecting duct. It's classified as a steroid and is produced by adrenal cortex as a mineral corticoid. This production is stimulated by the ACTH from the anterior pituitary.

Front 95

What are the products formed when ethanime reacts with 2-bromopropane?

Back 95

N-ethyl-2-propanimie
N-ethyl-N-isopropyl-2-propanime
Ethyltriisopropylammonium bromide

Front 96

What is an oxazolidine?

Back 96

It's a 5 member ring 3C, 1N, and 1O.

Front 97

What is the general formula for a dissacharide? How are they formed? What are the two different ends referred?

Back 97

The general formula is C12H22O11. They are connected via a glycosidic bond. The reaction is a condensation or dehydration. The reducing end still has the hemiacetal, while the non reducing no longer does.

Front 98

Talk IR. What are the stretching for a OH, C=O, C-O, CN bond?

Back 98

The CN bond is 2250, C-O bond is 1000-1300, the O-H bond is 3200-3500, and the C=O is between 1700 and 1850.