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214 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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convert sunshine into energy
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autotrophic organisms
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obtain energy catabolically
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heterotrophs
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the ultimate source of energy?
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the sun
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the breakdown of organic nutrients
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catabolical
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____compounds + ______ yields _______+_______+______
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1) organic
2)oxygen 3)carbon dioxide 4)water 5)energy |
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waste products of respiration in heterotrophs
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CO2 & H2O
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What plays an essential role in cell metabolism?
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glucose
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How is ATP made?
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converting glucose into energy
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How do metabolic pathways yield energy?
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transfer of electrons
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The transfer of electrons in cellular respiration is what kind of reactions?
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redox reactions
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A chemical reaction resulting in the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another
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redox reaction
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the loss of electrons from a substance
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oxidation
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the gain of electrons substance
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reduction
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OIL REG?
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oxidation is loss; reduction is gained
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In cellular respiration in terms of redox reaction, what is oxidized and what is reduced?
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glucose; oxygen
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where do electrons go after they are cleaved?
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Electrons usually pass first to an electron acceptor
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A coenzyme named NAD+ is a what?
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electron acceptor
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The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of the transfer of 2 electrons and 1 protons is?
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dehydrogenase
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What is NAD+?
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nicotinamide adenine dinucletide
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aerobic process (with oxygen)
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aerobic respiration
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anaerobic process (no oxygen)
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fermentation pathway
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lactic acid (lactate) is the end product
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latic acid
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ethanol & CO2 are end products
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acohol fermentation
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Lactic acid build up causes what?
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aching
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What is alcohol fermentation carried out by?
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yeast
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Fermentations do not oxidize what completely?
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glucose
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In fermentation what happens to the electrons?
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End up in fermentation end products, no energy obtained
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In fermentation what happens to the carbon from glucose?
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Ends up in fermentation end products, still energy present since not compltely oxidized.
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breaks down complex molecules to simpler compounds (from proteins to amino acids)
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catabolic metabolism
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consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones (synthesis of proteins from amino acids)
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anabolic metabolism
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interaction between catabolic and anabolic pathways
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energy coupling
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capacity to do work; the ability to rearrange a collection of matter
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energy
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when energy is associated with the relative motion of objects
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kinetic energy
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an object not presently moving may still possess energy
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potential energy
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the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
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chemical energy
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the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
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thermodynamics
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energy can be transferred and transformed but it can not be created or destroyed
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1st Law of Thermodynamics
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every energy transfer or transformation increses the entropy of the universe
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2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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a meausre of disorder
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entropy
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the portion of a systems energy that is available to preform work
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free energy
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reactions proceed with a new release of free energy and Delta G is negative
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exergonic
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reactions absorb free energy from the environment and Delta G is positive
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endergonic
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The ____ of ATP is _____in the ________________.
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1) energy
2) stored 3) bonds between the 3 phosphates |
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the phosphate group generated is _______ to some other molecule with the help of an enzyme
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transferreed
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the molecule that receives the phosphate
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phosphorylated
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what speeds up the rate of reactions?
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enzymes
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chemical agents that change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
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catalysts
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the intial investment of energy for starting a reaction
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activation energy
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A pocket or groove on the surface of a protein, composed of only a few of the enzymes amino acids.
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active site
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3 groups of factors that affect enzyme activity?
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1) environmental conditions
2) cofactors 3) enzyme inhibitors |
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non-protein helpers for catalytic activity
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cofactors
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metal atoms are what cofactors?
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inorganic
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vitamins are what kind of molecule?
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organic
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resemble the substrate and compete for the active site
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competitive inhibitors
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binds the enzyme at a location away from the active site but alters the conformation of the enzyme so that the active site is no longer functional
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noncompetitive inhibitors
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loss (break) of electrons
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oxidation of pyruvate
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Where does the citric acid take place?
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the mitochondrial matrix
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What is ATP generate from?
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substrate-level phosphorylation
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What happens in the citric acid cycle?
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decomposes a derivative of Acetyl CoA to CO2 & donates electrons to the electron transport chain
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In the citric acid cycle what are the 2 different electron carriers?
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NAD & FAD
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The citric acid cycle yieds?
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electrons (FAD & NAD) and 2 ATP
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The steps of the citric acid cycle are ____ and occur _____.
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1) exergoinc
2) spontaneously |
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Why is aerobic respiration important?
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Major mechanism of releasing energy from food molecules
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loss (break) of electrons
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oxidation of pyruvate
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Where is the electron transport chain located?
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It is embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
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Where does the citric acid take place?
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the mitochondrial matrix
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What is the final electron acceptor?
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o2
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What is ATP generate from?
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substrate-level phosphorylation
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What happens in the citric acid cycle?
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decomposes a derivative of Acetyl CoA to CO2 & donates electrons to the electron transport chain
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In the citric acid cycle what are the 2 different electron carriers?
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NAD & FAD
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The citric acid cycle yieds?
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electrons (FAD & NAD) and 2 ATP
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The steps of the citric acid cycle are ____ and occur _____.
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1) exergoinc
2) spontaneously |
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Why is aerobic respiration important?
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Major mechanism of releasing energy from food molecules
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Where is the electron transport chain located?
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It is embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
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What is the final electron acceptor?
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o2
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What is the powerhouse of the cell?
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Mitochondria
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Membrane of the mitochondria is known as?
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cristae
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Electron carries of ETS are embedded in the?
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membrane
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The energy released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondria can use to make ATP, this mode of ATP synthesis is called??
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oxidative phosphorylation
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a mechanism for energy coupling?
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chemiosmosis
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ATP synthase is located where?
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in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
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Oxidative phosphorylation is an efficient process whereby ADP is generate by the breakdown of ATP? (TRUE OR FALSE)
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False
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In total how many ATP's are produced per glucose?
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36-38 ATP
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The conversion of solar energy to chemical energy
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Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis is preformed by?
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Autotrophs
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Tissue in the interior of the leaf?
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mesophyll
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The subcellular organelle involved in photosynthesis is?
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chloroplast
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There are about ____ to ____ chloroplasts in each mesophyll cell.
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1) 30
2) 40 |
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CO2 enters a leaf and O2 exits through pores.
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stomata
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The fluid within the chloroplast
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Stroma
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A system of interconnected membranes that divide the stroma from the thylakoid space
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Thylakoid membranes
*spree candy |
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Where is chlorophyll located?
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In the thylakoid membranes
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When the thylakoid membranes are stacked they are called?
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grana
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2 sets of reactions that cooperate to convert light energy into chemical energy of food?
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Light reactions and Calvin cycle
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When oxygen is released as a result of photosynthesis, it is a direct by-product of?
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splitting water molecules
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The light harvesting units of the thylakoid membrane?
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photosystems
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Where does the Calvin cycle occur?
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in the stroma of the chloroplast
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The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is?
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carbon fixation
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Incorporates CO2 by attaching CO2 to a 5-carbon sugar named?
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ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
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the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction
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Rubisco
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3 Phases of the Calvin Cycle
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*carbon fixation
*reduction *regeneration of RuBP |
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3 stages of cell signaling
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1) reception
2) transduction 3) response |
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In reception what is the usual receptor?
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plasma membrane
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A ligand resides where and does what?
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Resides outside of the cell and binds to a receptor protein to make it undergo a shape change
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What is a major type of receptors?
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G-protein-linked receptors
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cell signaling involves proteins embedded within the plasma membrane what are those proteins called?
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receptors
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Receptors are composed of ___ embedded in the plasma membrane, and have their N and C termini exposed to the ____ and _____.
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1) protein
2) ECM 3) cytoplasm |
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____ stage converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response
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transduction
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What functions like molecular ON/OFF switches
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G proteins
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GDP bound =
GTP bound = |
inactive
active |
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A widely used process for regulating protein activity?
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protein phosphorylation
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The general name for an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein is?
*act on substrate proteins |
protein kinase
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An enzyme that adds phosphates to other molecules is called a(n)?
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Kinase
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A process by which a signal on a cell’s surface is converted into a specific cellular
response through a series of steps |
Signal Transduction Pathway
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3 types of cell communication in animal cells
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– Local regulators
– Distant communication – Direct contact between cell |
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a secreting cell acts on nearby
target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into the extracellular fluid (growth factors) |
Paracrine signaling
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a nerve cell releases
neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse (the narrow space between transmitting and target cell) |
Synaptic signaling
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Distant communication includes:
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hormone signaling
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The transduced signal finally triggers a ______ ______ response.
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specific cellular
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a cell’s total hereditary
endowment of DNA |
Genome
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the division of one cell into daughter cells
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cell division
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how many chromosomes does a somatic cell have?
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45 chromosomes
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how many chromosomes does a reproductive cell have?
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23 chromosomes
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What is another name for a reproductive cell?
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germ cell
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Eukaryotic nucleus has more than 1 _____ molecule.
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DNA
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DNA complexed with proteins, what are they called?
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histones
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This thing is coiled to fit in the nucleus, it helps control the activity of genes, and maintains the structure of DNA
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chromatin
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the activity of genes is?
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transcription
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Another name for the regular sequence of cell growth and division
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cell cycle
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the knuckle glue of the sister chromatid
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centromere
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sister chromatids consists of duplicated chromosomes?
(True or False) |
True
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G1- Gap Phase 1 is the ____________ phase?
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initial growth
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DNA is replicated in the what phase?
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S phase
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G2- Gap Phase 2 is the __________________ phase?
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preparation for division
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Nuclear Division and Cytokinesis is what phase?
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Mitosis
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The separation of genetic info into two quantities
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mitosis
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5 phases of Mitosis
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1) prophase
2) prometaphase 3) metaphase 4) anaphase 5) telophase |
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Transcription (RNA) and ribosome substance is in the active nucleus of what phase?
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Interphase
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Chromatin coils to form chromosomes, Nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear envelope is still there; what phase?
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prophase
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______ organize microtubles of spindle apparatus
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centrosomes
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The region where chromatids are held together?
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centromere
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protein structure on chromatids where spindle microtubles attach, located at the centromere region
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kinetochore
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Nuclear envelope begins to breakdown, microtubles of the spindle now invade the nucleus, and everything condenses
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prometaphase
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The center of the spindle apparatus?
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metaphase plate
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Chromosomes line up
with centromeres in a plane in the center of the spindle apparatus |
metaphase
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Sister chromatids separate, and the spindle fibers shorten and
pull sister chromatids in opposite directions |
anaphase
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In anaphase the sister chromatids are now referred to as?
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chromosomes
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2 daughter nuclei reorganize
• Spindle disperses, nuclear envelope and nucleoli reform • Chromatin fiber of each chromosome becomes less tightly coiled • 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei are seen |
telophase
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What is underway during the telophase stage?
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Cytokinesis
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During anaphase spindle fibers are responsible for doing what?
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pulling the sister chromatids apart
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the sole parent and
passes on all of its genes directly to its offspring |
single individual
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_______derived by mitosis & is
genetically identical to the parent |
budding
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a group of genetically identical
individuals |
clone
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Involves the uniting of
genes from 2 parent |
sexual reproduction
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_______results
from sexual reproduction compared to asexual reproduction |
genetic variation
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a method of organizing the
chromosomes of a cell in relation to number, size, and type |
karyotype
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Chromosomes have
partners that look quite similar. These pairs are called |
homologous chromosomes
(homologs). |
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Specific location of a gene
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locus
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The X and Y chromosomes are called
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sex chromosomes
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The remaining chromosomes in the body are called
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autosomes
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- a cell with a single set of chromosomes
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haploid
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- a cell containing 2 sets of chromosomes, one
inherited from each parent |
diploid
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Human females have a homologous pair of ___ chromosomes
Males have one ___and one ___ |
1) X
2&3) X, Y |
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the process that halves the diploid set to a single haploid set of chromosomes, resulting in the haploid germ cells
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meiosis
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restores the diploid set
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fertilization
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Chromosomes replicate - each chromosome is
actually 2 sister chromatids |
Meiosis 1
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No DNA replication (no interphase)
This results in 4 daughter cells instead of 2 and each one has only half the number of chromosomes |
Meiosis 2
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Chromosomes replicate. For each chromosome, the result is 2 genetically identical sister chromatids which are attached at their centromeres
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Interphase
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a complex of 4 chromosomes
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tetrad
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– Chromosomes begin to condense
Homologous chromosomes (each made up of 2 sister chromatids) come together as pairs |
Prophase 1
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• Chromosomes are arranged on the metaphase plate
• Chromosomes still in homologous pair |
Metaphase 1
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• The spindle apparatus moves the homologous chromosomes
toward opposite poles • The sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres and move as a single unit toward the same pole |
Anaphase 1
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• The spindle apparatus continues to separate the homologous
chromosome pairs until the chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell • Each pole now has a haploid set of chromosomes • However, each chromosome stil has 2 sister chromatid |
Telophase 1
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• The sister chromatids finally separate and move towards
opposite pole |
Anaphase 2
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• Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell
• Cytoplasmic division occurs • There are now 4 haploid daughter cell |
Telophase II & Cytokinesi
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• The chromosomes are positioned at the plate in a mitosislike fashion with kinetochores of sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing toward opposite pole |
Metaphase 2
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• No interphase (or DNA replication)
• A spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes progress towards the metaphase II plat |
Prophase 2
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A chicken has 78 chromosomes in its cells. During mitosis following DNA duplication, how many chromosomes are there in a somatic cell during prophase of mitosis?
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78
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A chicken has 78 chromosomes in its cells. How many chromosomes will be in each somatic cell of the chicken's offspring?
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78
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A chicken has 78 chromosomes in its cells. How many chromosomes are in each of the chicken's gametes (egg or sperm)?
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39
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Following fertilization of a chicken egg by a sperm, how many chromosomes will be in each somatic cell of the offspring?
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78
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_____is much longer and complicated than mitosis
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interphase
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____ phase of cell cycle is the key
phase in controlling cell division |
G1
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determines whether cell
divides |
restriction point in G1
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divides?
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continues
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nondividing state, G0 phase
may differentiat |
stop
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do not respond to normal
regulation of growth and division • They continue to grow and divide |
cancer cell
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tumors are not cancerous
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benign
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tumors are cancerous, may impair
functions of organ or move to other parts of body |
malignant
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a protein released by certain body cells that stimulates other cells to divide
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growth factor
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crowded cells usually stop dividing (doesn’t happen in cancer cells
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Density-dependent inhibition of cell division
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3 Things unique to meiosis
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1) Duplicated homologous chromosomes synapse
2) Homologous pairs of chromosomes align on the metaphase plate 3) Sister chromosomes do not separate at anaphase I of meiosis as they do in mitosis |
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You can see regions; they are physical manifestations of a genetic rearrangement
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chiasmata
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3 major ways sexual reproduction
increases genetic variation! |
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes
2. Crossing over 3. Random fertilization |
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The arrangement of chromosomes on the
metaphase I plate determines which chromosomes will be packaged together |
Independent assortment of chromosomes
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Occurs during prophase of meiosis I
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crossing over
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Homologous portions of 2 non-sister chromatids trade places
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recombination
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Each human egg or
sperm represents 8 million possible chromosome combinations |
Random Fertilization
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|
|
3 Things unique to meiosis
|
1) Duplicated homologous chromosomes synapse
2) Homologous pairs of chromosomes align on the metaphase plate 3) Sister chromosomes do not separate at anaphase I of meiosis as they do in mitosis |
|
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The sister chromatids finally separate and move towards
opposite poles |
Anaphase II
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You can see regions; they are physical manifestations of a genetic rearrangement
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chiasmata
|
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The chromosomes are positioned at the plate in a mitosislike fashion with kinetochores of sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing toward opposite pole |
Metaphase II
|
|
|
3 major ways sexual reproduction
increases genetic variation! |
1. Independent assortment of chromosomes
2. Crossing over 3. Random fertilization |
|
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No interphase (or DNA replication)
• A spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes progress towards the metaphase II plate |
Prophase II
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The arrangement of chromosomes on the
metaphase I plate determines which chromosomes will be packaged together |
Independent assortment of chromosomes
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Occurs during prophase of meiosis I
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crossing over
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Homologous portions of 2 non-sister chromatids trade places
|
recombination
|
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Each human egg or
sperm represents 8 million possible chromosome combinations |
Random Fertilization
|
|
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The sister chromatids finally separate and move towards
opposite poles |
Anaphase II
|
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The chromosomes are positioned at the plate in a mitosislike fashion with kinetochores of sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing toward opposite pole |
Metaphase II
|
|
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No interphase (or DNA replication)
• A spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes progress towards the metaphase II plate |
Prophase II
|
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Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell
• Cytoplasmic division occurs • There are now 4 haploid daughter cells |
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
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|
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How many chromosomes were observed in the somatic cells of the offspring of the cross (44X50)?
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47
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Do you predict that the female offspring would be able to form viable gametes? Why or why not?
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No, because homologos would not pair during prophase I
|
