Biological Psychology (Test 3)

Front 1

The mechanism we use to detect & react to stimuli, transforming environmental stimulation into information the nervous system can use.

Back 1

Sense

Front 2

The conversion of physical energy into a neural impulse.

Back 2

Transduction

Front 3

A process involving a specific pattern of neural activity that contains information about stimuli in the environment.

Back 3

Coding

Front 4

The type of coding in which information about a stimulus is determined by the particular receptor reacting to the stimulus.

Back 4

E.g., certain receptors are sensitive to bitter & sweet.

Hint 4

Labeled Line Coding

Front 5

The type of coding in which information about a stimulus is determined by the pattern of neural impulses.

Back 5

E.g., taste of bittersweet candy.

Hint 5

Across-Fiber Pattern Coding

Front 6

Cross sensory wiring.

Back 6

Synesthesia

Front 7

Letters or numbers perceived as inherently colored.

Back 7

Word-Color Synesthesia

Front 8

Individual letters & numbers are perceived as inherently colored.

Back 8

Grapheme-Color Synesthesia

Front 9

Individuals experience colors in response to tones or other aspects of musical stimuli.

Back 9

Music-Color Synesthesia

Front 10

Individual words & sounds of spoken language evoke the sensations of taste in the mouth.

Back 10

Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia

Front 11

Synesthesia runs strongly in families, possibly inherited as a(n) ___ trait.

Back 11

X-Linked Dominant

Front 12

Synesthesia occurs in about ___ of population.

Back 12

4%

Hint 12

1/23 Persons

Front 13

The receptor cell at the back of the eye that transduces light into a neural impulse.

Back 13

Photoreceptor

Front 14

The transparent outer layer of the eyeball.

Back 14

Cornea

Front 15

A clear fluid similar to blood plasma which fills the anterior chamber of the eye.

Back 15

Aqueous Humor

Front 16

A structure consisting of bands of muscle covered by colored tissue.

Back 16

Iris

Front 17

An opening in the iris that light passes through (size is regulated by ANS).

Back 17

Pupil

Front 18

The ___ consists of transparent, onion-like layers of tissue whose function is to focus the light passing through the pupil on the retina.

Back 18

Lens

Front 19

Contract to control the shape of the lens.

Back 19

Ciliary Muscles

Front 20

Change in the shape of the lens to maintain focus of an image on the retina.

Back 20

Accommodation

Front 21

A clear, jelly-like fluid between the lens & the retina.

Back 21

Vitreous Humor

Front 22

The interior lining at the back of the eye that contains the photoreceptors.

Back 22

Retina

Front 23

An upside down & reversed image focused on the retina.

Back 23

Retinal Image

Front 24

A cell between a photoreceptor & a ganglion cell in the retina.

Back 24

Bipolar Cell

Front 25

A cell in the third layer of cells in the retina.

Back 25

Ganglion Cell

Front 26

The central region of the retina where cones are most concentrated.

Back 26

Fovea

Front 27

Rods & cones are:

Back 27

Photoreceptors

Front 28

A type of photoreceptor located in the peripheral part of the eye which operates in low light.

Back 28

Rod

Front 29

A type of photoreceptor relatively concentrated in the center of the retina which detects fine details & colors in bright light.

Back 29

Cone

Front 30

___ have better acuity; ___ have more light sensitivity due to a process called ___.

Back 30

Cones; Rods; Convergence

Front 31

Located mostly in the periphery of the retina.

Back 31

Relatively sensitive to light.

Hint 31

Rods

Front 32

Operate under low light levels (at night).

Back 32

Achromatic (colorless) vision.

Hint 32

Rods

Front 33

Low visual acuity.

Back 33

High convergence of information.

Hint 33

Rods

Front 34

Located mostly in the center of the retina.

Back 34

Relatively insensitive to light.

Hint 34

Cones

Front 35

Operates under high light levels (during the day).

Back 35

Chromatic (color) vision.

Hint 35

Cones

Front 36

High visual acuity.

Back 36

Low convergence of information.

Hint 36

Cones

Front 37

There are 120 million ___ & 6 million ___ in each human retina.

Back 37

Rods; Cones

Front 38

An area in the back of the eye where axons of the ganglion cells come together where an object cannot be seen.

Back 38

Optic Disk (Blind Spot)

Front 39

___ enter the eye at the optic disc & ___ exit.

Back 39

Arteries; Veins

Front 40

You cannot see an object focused at the ___; however, movement of the eye eliminates the ___.

Back 40

Optic Disc; Blind Spot

Front 41

Formed by the axons of ganglion cells.

Back 41

Optic Nerve

Front 42

The location of the crossing of the 2 optic nerves to opposite sides of the brain.

Back 42

In humans about 50% of the fibers cross here.

Hint 42

Optic Chiasm

Front 43

The fibers that originate in the ___ half of each retina cross over to the ___ of the brain.

Back 43

Nasal; Contralateral (Opposite) Side

Front 44

The fibers that originate in the ___ half of each retina stay on the ___ of the brain.

Back 44

Lateral; Ipsilateral (Same) Side

Front 45

The continuation of the optic nerves past the optic chiasm.

Back 45

About 80% project to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus.

Hint 45

Optic Tracts

Front 46

The parvocellular layers are the top 4 layers & the magnocellular layers are the bottom 2 layers of the ___.

Back 46

LGN

Front 47

___ are the 4 top layers of the LGN.

Back 47

Parvocellular Layers

Front 48

The 2 bottom layers of the LGN.

Back 48

Magnocellular Layers

Front 49

The parvocellular layers are composed of a type of neuron with small cell bodies that receive projections from a type of ganglion cell called a(n) ___.

Back 49

These cells originate from the central portion of the retina (fovea) that contains mostly cones.

Hint 49

X Ganglion Cell

Front 50

The magnocellular layers are ccomposed of neurons with large cell bodies that receive input from a(n) ___.

Back 50

These cells originate mostly from the periphery of the retina which suggests that their input is primarily from rods.

Hint 50

Y Ganglion Cell

Front 51

Both the LGN & primary visual cortex are organized spatially like a map of the retina so the representation of an image remains intact as it is sent to the ___.

Back 51

Primary Visual Cortex

Front 52

About 25% of the ___ receives representation from the ___ (a disproportional amount) which helps to account for the greater acuity of objects seen in bright light.

Back 52

Primary Visual Cortex; Fovea

Front 53

About 80% of the optic tract fibers go to the ___;

Back 53

The remaining 20% to the ___.

Hint 53

LGN; Superior Colliculus

Front 54

Is responsible for attention to visual stimuli & eye movement.

Back 54

Superior Colliculus

Front 55

The area of the cerebral cortex that detects features of the visual environment.

Back 55

Also called area V1 or striate cortex.

Hint 55

Primary Visual Cortex

Front 56

The primary visual cortex has ___ layers like the LGN.

Back 56

6

Front 57

A cluster of neurons in the primary visual cortex that are sensitive to specific colors.

Back 57

Blobs

Front 58

An inability to see objects in a specific part of the visual field.

Back 58

Caused by damage to a region of the occipital lobe or the pathways leading to it.

Hint 58

Visual Field Deficit

Front 59

The ability of an individual to respond to objects in a missing visual field without being conscious of seeing anything.

Back 59

Blindsight

Front 60

The area of the cerebral cortex that combines visual features into a recognizable visual perception.

Back 60

Also called area V2 or prestriate cortex.

Hint 60

Secondary Visual Cortex

Front 61

___ occurs when the rods & cones change light energy into neural messages which are carried to the cerebral cortex.

Back 61

Transduction

Front 62

___ is related to the perceived characteristic of hue or color.

Back 62

Measured in nanometers (1 nm is a billionth of a meter).

Hint 62

Wavelength

Front 63

___ is related to the perceived characteristic of brightness.

Back 63

Intensity

Front 64

___ refers to the number of wavelengths light contains.

Back 64

It is also related to the perceived characteristic of saturation.

Hint 64

Purity

Front 65

Wavelength, intensity, & purity are characteristics of ___.

Back 65

Light

Front 66

A thin membranous disc in the outer layer of a photoreceptor.

Back 66

Lamella

Front 67

A chemical molecule in the lamellae of the eye that absorbs light.

Back 67

Photopigment

Front 68

The protein component of a photopigment.

Back 68

Opsin

Front 69

The lipid component of a photopigment.

Back 69

Synthesized from Vitamin A.

Hint 69

Retinal

Front 70

The form of opsin found in the rods.

Back 70

Rod Opsin

Front 71

The photopigment in rods (rosy color before light exposure).

Back 71

Consists of rod opsin & retinal.

Hint 71

Rhodopsin

Front 72

Rhodopsin, Opsin, Rod Opsin, Retinal, Lamella, & Photopigment are:

Back 72

Photoreceptor Structures

Front 73

A decrease in activity of one neuron caused by the stimulation of its neighbors.

Back 73

It allows us to sense edges by enhancing the contrast between an object & its background.

Hint 73

Lateral Inhibition

Front 74

A region of the retina that, when stimulated, causes a change in activity of the cell.

Back 74

Receptive Field

Front 75

Ganglion cells stimulated when the center of the receptive field is illuminated.

Back 75

Center-On, Surround-Off

Front 76

Ganglion cells activated when the surround is illuminated.

Back 76

Center-Off, Surround-On

Front 77

A neuron in area V1 that responds to lines (edges) in a specific part of the visual field having a specific orientation.

Back 77

If the orientation of the line is changed, this cell doesn’t fire or has a drastically reduced response.

Hint 77

Simple Cell

Front 78

Found in areas V1 & V2; these cells are sensitive to a line stimulus oriented in a certain direction.

Back 78

The stimulus can appear in several different locations & still activate the large receptive field of this cell. Some cells respond to line movement in a specific direction & others respond to line movement in any direction.

Hint 78

Complex Cells

Front 79

Respond to visual stimuli of a particular orientation (line-tilt) within a relatively large receptive field.

Back 79

However, if the line stimulus extends beyond a specific point they do not respond (end-stopped).

Hint 79

Hypercomplex Cells

Front 80

A column of cells in the visual cortex all having the same amount of dominance of input from either the right or left eye.

Back 80

Ocular Dominance Column

Front 81

A column of cells in the visual cortex all responding to the same orientation of a line stimulus (line-tilt).

Back 81

Orientation Column

Front 82

Cells of the visual cortex which respond to specific features of a visual scene.

Back 82

This may be due to responding to a different feature of the visual scene (its spatial features).

Hint 82

Feature Detectors

Front 83

This theory proposes any visual scene can be broken into areas of lightness & darkness (represented by a sine-wave grating).

Back 83

Spatial-Frequency Theory

Front 84

Hubel & Wiesel (1963) found a critical period of stimulation required for normal development for cats (about 3 months).

Back 84

This period may last as long as 4 to 5 years or more in humans.

Hint 84

Critical Period

Front 85

Amblyopia is produced by ___ & treated by forcing patients to use the “lazy” eye.

Back 85

Strabismus

Front 86

___ problems may be caused by damage within the cerebral cortex even though the sensory pathway is intact.

Back 86

Perceptual

Front 87

An inability to name an object presented visually (the ability to identify it by another sense, e.g., touch may be present).

Back 87

Visual Agnosia

Front 88

The region of the inferotemporal cortex most responsible for recognition of faces.

Back 88

Fusiform Face Area

Front 89

An impaired ability to recognize faces visually.

Back 89

A person with this problem may be unable to recognize their own face!

Hint 89

Prosopagnosia

Front 90

___ cues to depth perception require only one eye in order to be detected.

Back 90

Examples: Relative size, Interposition, Gradient of texture, Relative height, Linear perspective.

Hint 90

Monocular

Front 91

___ depth cues are provided by both eyes.

Back 91

Example: Retinal disparity.

Hint 91

Binocular

Front 92

Certain neurons in the ___ are sensitive to various types of movements (horizontal, vertical, or motion perpendicular to one axis of orientation).

Back 92

Visual Cortex

Front 93

Neurons in area V1 that respond to movement in one direction.

Back 93

Component Direction-Selective Neurons

Front 94

Neurons in the middle temporal cortex that combine the information arriving from the primary visual cortex to recognize the direction in which an object is moving.

Back 94

Pattern Direction-Selective Neurons

Front 95

There are also neurons in the ___ that can detect the speed at which an object is moving.

Back 95

MST

Front 96

The theory that color perceptions come from a pattern of stimulation of three sets of color receptors in the eye.

Back 96

Problems with this theory include an explanation of why red-green color defect individuals don’t have difficulty detecting yellow.

Hint 96

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

Front 97

The theory that there are 3 receptor complexes operating in opponent fashion to yield a perception of color & brightness.

Back 97

This theory explains negative afterimages.

Hint 97

Opponent-Process Theory

Front 98

There are different types of cones which are sensitive to different wavelengths as predicted by the trichromatic theory.

Back 98

Beyond the level of photoreceptors there are different types of ganglion cells & parvocellular neurons of the LGN that seem to operate by opponent-process theory.

Hint 98

Integration of Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory & Hering’s Opponent-Process Theory

Front 99

Refers to the phenomenon in which an object retains its known color despite changes in lighting conditions.

Back 99

Color Constancy

Front 100

The problem of how the brain binds together information to form a unified perception.

Back 100

The shape, structure, & spatial location of an object are formed into a unified perception of an object.

Hint 100

Binding Problem

Front 101

The solution to the binding problem:

Back 101

The parts of the visual system involved in forming a unified perception of an object:

Hint 101

Occipitotemporal Pathways & Occipitoparietal Pathways

Front 102

Vibrations in a material medium, such as air, water, or metal.

Back 102

Sound

Front 103

When objects vibrate, air molecules are set in motion. These molecules are pushed together & moved apart to create a wave of movement traveling away from the vibrating object.

Back 103

These waves are detected by ___ in the ear & are perceived as particular sounds.

Hint 103

Auditory Receptors

Front 104

Sound waves vary along 3 dimensions:

Back 104

Frequency, Amplitude, & Timbre

Front 105

Refers to the number of vibrations per second.

Back 105

Measured in hertz (Hz).

Hint 105

Frequency

Front 106

Humans can detect sounds with frequencies between ___ Hz (a low-pitched sound) & ___ kHz (a high-pitched sound).

Back 106

20; 20

Front 107

Refers to the loudness of a sound wave.

Back 107

Measured in decibels (dB).

Hint 107

Amplitude

Front 108

The more intensely an object ___, the greater the amplitude.

Back 108

Vibrates

Front 109

Objects that produce small ripples are perceived as ___ sounds; objects that produce large ripples are perceived as ___ sounds.

Back 109

Soft; Loud

Front 110

Complex sounds consist of multiple frequencies.

Back 110

The combination of multiple frequencies gives each sound its characteristic quality, which we perceive as ___.

Hint 110

Timbre

Front 111

Pinna to tympanic membrane.

Back 111

Outer Ear

Front 112

Membrane that divides the outer & middle parts of the ear.

Back 112

Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)

Front 113

Tympanic membrane to oval window.

Back 113

Middle Ear

Front 114

The bone of the middle ear attached to the tympanic membrane & the incus.

Back 114

Malleus (Hammer)

Front 115

The bone of the middle ear attached to the malleus & stapes.

Back 115

Incus (Anvil)

Front 116

The bone of the middle ear attached to the incus & the oval window.

Back 116

Stapes (Stirrup)

Front 117

The part of the inner ear attached to the stapes.

Back 117

Oval Window

Front 118

Cochlea & vestibular system of the ear.

Back 118

Inner Ear

Front 119

A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the auditory receptors.

Back 119

Cochlea

Front 120

The primary receptor unit in cochlea.

Back 120

Organ of Corti

Front 121

A membrane in the organ of Corti to which auditory receptors are attached by Deiter’s cells.

Back 121

Basilar Membrane

Front 122

A membrane in the organ of Corti in which hair cell cilia are embedded or with which cilia make close contact.

Back 122

Tectorial Membrane

Front 123

The inner hair cells have a resting potential of -60 mV.

Back 123

When cilia bend in the direction of the longest cilium the membrane ___.

Hint 123

Depolarizes

Front 124

Depolarization of the membrane leads to a rapid influx of Ca2+ ions into the hair cells, which results in the release of ___.

Back 124

Glutamate

Front 125

A nerve formed by the axons of bipolar cells in the spiral ganglion that synapse with the hair cells.

Back 125

Cochlear Nerve

Front 126

Cranial nerve VIII.

Back 126

The nerve that extends from the merging of the cochlear nerve & vestibular nerve.

Hint 126

Auditory Nerve

Front 127

The first neurons in the medulla that receive neural messages from auditory receptors via the auditory nerve.

Back 127

Cochlear Nucleus

Front 128

A group of neurons in the medulla that receives neural messages from the cochlear nuclei.

Back 128

Superior Olivary Nucleus

Front 129

An area of the tectum of the midbrain that receives neural messages from both the cochlear nucleus & the superior olivary nucleus.

Back 129

Inferior Colliculus

Front 130

A group of neurons in the thalamus that receives neural impulses from the inferior colliculus.

Back 130

Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN)

Front 131

The area of the temporal lobe where the features of a sound are recognized.

Back 131

Primary Auditory Cortex

Front 132

The area surrounding the primary auditory cortex,

Back 132

Where pitch, loudness, & timbre are perceived & specific sounds are understood.

Hint 132

Secondary Auditory Cortex

Front 133

The view that different sounds activate nerve fibers at different locations on the basilar membrane. High-pitched sounds activate the nerve fibers at the base of the membrane near the oval window; low-pitched sounds stimulate nerve fibers at the opposite end of the basilar membrane.

Back 133

While the details have proven incorrect, there is experimental support for the theory: Exposure to damaging sounds of a particular frequency can impair a person’s ability to detect that frequency. As the frequency of the damaging sound increases, damage to the basilar membrane moves closer to its base.

Hint 133

Place Theory of Pitch Perception (Helmholtz)

Front 134

The view that the firing rate in the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the sound. That is, the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with the sound wave.

Back 134

We now know that the firing rate matches the frequency because of the volley principle. While one group of neurons in the auditory nerve is firing, another group is recovering from its previous activity, with the end result being that the combined firing of all the groups matches the frequency of the sound.

Hint 134

Frequency Theory of Pitch Perception (Rutherford)

Front 135

Current theory: From 20 Hz to 400 Hz, ___ theory accounts for pitch perception (the firing rate of individual neurons in the auditory nerve directly matches the frequency of the sound).

Back 135

Frequency

Front 136

Current theory: From 400 Hz to 4 kHz, ___ principle takes over.

Back 136

Volley

Front 137

Current theory: Beyond 4 kHz, ___ theory comes into play (the place of maximal vibration on the basilar membrane determines the pitch that we perceive).

Back 137

Place

Front 138

Current theory: Additionally, both place theory & the volley principle work for sounds from about ___ kHz to ___ kHz (may explain our greater sensitivity to pitches within this range).

Back 138

1;4

Front 139

The nervous system has 2 mechanisms for determining the intensity of a stimulus:

Back 139

(1) The rate of firing of individual neurons. (2) The number of neurons firing.

Front 140

The higher the firing rate of neurons, or the greater the number of neurons firing, the more ___ the stimulus.

Back 140

Intense

Front 141

___ tones are sounds of only 1 frequency; ___ sounds have 2 or more frequencies.

Back 141

Pure; Complex

Front 142

Most sounds in our environment are ___.

Back 142

Complex

Front 143

___ of frequencies produces what we perceive as the timbre of a particular sound.

Back 143

Combination

Front 144

According to the place theory, because each sound frequency activates a specific part of the ___, a ___ sound produces a unique pattern of neural activity.

Back 144

Basilar Membrane; Complex

Front 145

For both low-pitched & high-pitched sounds, the cues to sound localization are based on differential time of arrival at the 2 ears.

Back 145

As long as the sound does not come from the ___, the sound will arrive at 1 ear slightly before it gets to the other ear, which allows us to locate the ___ from which a sound comes from.

Hint 145

Median Plane; Direction

Front 146

A cue to the localization of high-pitched sounds;

Back 146

A sound is louder in the ear closer to it than in the ear farther away.

Hint 146

Intensity Difference

Front 147

A cue to localizing a low-pitched sound by the difference in the cycle of the sound wave when it reaches each ear.

Back 147

Phase Difference

Front 148

Auditory receptors encode sound ___, ___, ___.

Back 148

Frequency, Intensity, & Timbre

Front 149

Auditory receptors send encoded information to the ___.

Back 149

Primary Auditory Cortex

Front 150

In the auditory cortex, some ___ respond selectively to specific aspects of sounds; others react to more complex aspects of the sound stimulus.

Back 150

Neurons

Front 151

Sound is identified as the neural information moves through the ___ (from the primary auditory cortex to the anterior part of the lateral surface of the superior temporal gyrus).

Back 151

“What” Stream

Hint 151

A.K.A. Occipitotemporal Pathways/ Ventral Stream

Front 152

Sound is localized as it moves through the ___ (to the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus & then to the parietal cortex).

Back 152

“Where” Stream

Hint 152

A.K.A. Occipitoparietal Pathways/ Dorsal Stream

Front 153

Damage to the ___ can lead to ___, which is the inability to recognize sounds, or Wernicke’s aphasia, which is an inability to understand language.

Back 153

Secondary Auditory Cortex; Auditory Agnosia

Front 154

___ is a device that transmits electrical impulses along the auditory nerve to the brain.

Back 154

It can restore speech reception & production, especially when it is done in prelingual children under 6 years old.

Hint 154

Cochlear Implant

Front 155

___ include the gustatory (taste) & olfactory (smell) systems.

Back 155

Chemical Senses

Front 156

Both ___ & ___ are intermingled in our eating experiences, in that much of what we report as the taste of food actually comes from its odor.

Back 156

Gustatory (Taste); Olfactory (Smell) Systems

Front 157

The sense of taste.

Back 157

Gustatory Sense

Front 158

Tastes can be classified according to 4 primary sensations:

Back 158

Sweet, Sour, Bitter, & Salty

Front 159

___ stimulate sugar receptors; ___
stimulate H+ receptors; ___ stimulate alkaloid compound receptors; ___ stimulate NaCl receptors.

Back 159

Sweet, Sour, Bitter, Salty

Front 160

A small, visible bump on the tongue that contains taste buds.

Back 160

Papilla

Front 161

A cluster of taste receptors that lie either near or within a papilla.

Back 161

Taste Bud

Front 162

3 kinds of papillae contain taste buds:

Back 162

Foliate, Circumvallate, & Fungiform

Front 163

People differ in their sensitivity to bitter & some sweet tastes.

Back 163

These individual differences appear to be partly related to the number of ___ on the tongue.

Hint 163

Taste Buds

Front 164

___ (25% of people) have the most taste buds (about 425 per square cm on the tongue tip).

Back 164

Supertasters

Front 165

___ (50% of people) have about 184 taste buds per square cm.

Back 165

Medium Tasters

Front 166

___ (25% of people) have about 96 per square cm.

Back 166

Non-Tasters

Front 167

The mechanism of ___ differs for each of the 4 basic tastes.

Back 167

Taste Reception

Front 168

___ food activates a taste receptor by causing Na+ ions to move through Na+ ion channels in the ___.

Back 168

Salty; Cell Membrane

Front 169

___ ions in sour foods & ___ molecules in sweet foods close the K+ ion channels in receptor membranes, preventing K+ ions from leaving the cell.

Back 169

H+; Sugar

Front 170

In bitter foods, ___ trigger the movement of Ca2+ ions into the cytoplasm from storage sites in the taste receptor, increasing the release of ___.

Back 170

Alkaloid Compounds; Neurotransmitters

Front 171

A branch of cranial nerve VII that conveys taste information from the posterior tongue & the palate & throat to the nucleus of the solitary tract.

Back 171

Chorda Tympani

Front 172

A group of neurons in the medulla that receives information from taste receptors.

Back 172

Nucleus of the Solitary Tract

Front 173

A group of neurons that receives taste information from the nucleus of the solitary tract & then transmits it to the primary gustatory cortex.

Back 173

Ventral Posteromedial Thalamic Nucleus

Front 174

An area located just ventral & rostral to the area representing the tongue in the somatosensory cortex.

Back 174

Primary Gustatory Cortex

Front 175

The sense of smell.

Back 175

Olfactory Sense

Front 176

Habituation can occur quickly with smells. Whether pleasant or unpleasant, we rapidly “get used to” smells.

Back 176

This sensory adaptation is caused by ___ responding by receptors when they are exposed to the same stimulus for a continuous period of time.

Hint 176

Decreased

Front 177

The mucous membrane in the top rear of the nasal passage;

Back 177

Lined by olfactory receptors.

Hint 177

Olfactory Epithelium

Front 178

A structure at the base of the brain that receives information about odor from olfactory receptors.

Back 178

Olfactory Bulb

Front 179

Axons of olfactory bulb neurons that project to the primary olfactory cortex.

Back 179

Olfactory Tract

Front 180

An area in the pyriform cortex in the limbic system that gives odors an emotional component.

Back 180

Primary Olfactory Cortex

Front 181

From the primary olfactory cortex, some olfactory messages are transmitted to the ___, where they become important in motivating approach or avoidance behavior related to food or drink.

Back 181

Hypothalamus

Front 182

Other olfactory messages go to the dorsomedial thalamus & then to the ___, which is thought to be responsible for odor identification.

Back 182

Orbitofrontal Cortex

Front 183

A change in the place or position of the body or a body part.

Back 183

Movement

Front 184

When the ___ of movement is working correctly, we can walk, run, swim, tie shoelaces, play the piano, & play golf.

Back 184

When it fails the result is a movement disorder such as myasthenia gravis, movement apraxia, ALS, Parkinson's disease, & Huntington's disease.

Hint 184

Neurological Control

Front 185

___ can range from simple to complex.

Back 185

Movements

Front 186

The simplest movements are ___.

Back 186

E.g., withdrawing your hand after touching a hot stove, Blinking when something gets in your eye.

Hint 186

Reflexive Reactions

Front 187

Other movements are more complex than reflexes, but less complex than other skills.

Back 187

E.g., maintaining posture, sitting,standing, walking, & eye movement.

Front 188

More complex movements canbe learned.

Back 188

E.g., playing the piano, riding a bike, & operating exercise equipment.

Front 189

The neural control of a particular movement operates on several different levels:

Back 189

Spinal Cord, Brain Stem Structures, Cerebral Cortex (And Other Structures)

Front 190

Most basic level of control is the ___ (e.g., spinal reflexes, such as the withdrawal reflex).

Back 190

Spinal Cord

Front 191

Next level of control involves ___ structures in the hindbrain & midbrain (e.g., visual pursuit of a light stimulus).

Back 191

Brain Stem

Front 192

Highest level of control involves the ___ & structures such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the primary & secondary motor cortex, & the somatosensory cortex.

Back 192

Cerebral Cortex

Front 193

Influences movement by smoothing out & refining it (gets rid of extraneous movement & acts to ensure that the selected movement occurs with sufficient, but not excessive, force);

Back 193

Also responsible for muscle tone & postural adjustments.

Hint 193

Basal Ganglia

Front 194

Plays a central role in translating uncoordinated movements into a skilled action;

Back 194

Receives feedback from sensory receptors that monitor movement & brain stem structures that initiate movement.

Hint 194

Cerebellum

Front 195

3 types of muscle tissue in the body:

Back 195

Smooth, Cardiac, & Skeletal

Front 196

Control the movement of internal organs (we’re not aware of this type of movement).

Back 196

Smooth Muscles

Front 197

These heart muscles actively work to pump blood through the circulatory system.

Back 197

Cardiac Muscles

Front 198

Enable us to perform the movements necessary to exercise & engage in other activities.

Back 198

Attached to bones by tendons.
Many of these muscles work in opposing pairs.

Hint 198

Skeletal Muscles

Front 199

Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by ___, which are strong bands of connective tissue that, when contracted, cause the movements of bones.

Back 199

Tendons

Front 200

Many skeletal muscles work in ___; in other words, when 1 muscle of a pair contracts or shortens, the other must lengthen in order for the bone to move.

Back 200

Opposing Pairs

Front 201

___ of skeletal muscles can be illustrated in the extension & flexion of a limb.

Back 201

Opposing Action

Front 202

Contracting an extensor muscle produces ___ of the limb (movement away from the body).

Back 202

Contracting a flexor muscle causes ___ (brings the extended limb back toward the body).

Hint 202

Extension; Flexion

Front 203

Muscles that work in opposition to each other (e.g., biceps & triceps) are called ___ muscles;

Back 203

Muscles whose contraction results in the same movement are called ___ muscles.

Hint 203

Antagonistic; Synergistic

Front 204

1 of the units comprising a skeletal muscle;

Back 204

About 10-100 micrometers in diameter.

Hint 204

Muscle Fibers

Front 205

1 of the units comprising a muscle fiber;

Back 205

Cylindrical structures about 1-2 micrometers across.

Hint 205

Myofibrils

Front 206

A component of a myofibril.

Back 206

Myofilament

Front 207

There are 2 kinds of myofilament in myofibrils:

Back 207

Myosin & Actin

Front 208

The protein component of thick myofilaments.

Back 208

Myosin

Front 209

The protein component of thin myofilaments.

Back 209

Actin

Front 210

The functional unit of a myofibril, consisting of overlapping bands of thick myosin filaments & thin actin filaments.

Back 210

This gives skeletal muscles a striped appearance, which is why they are sometimes called striated muscles.

Hint 210

Sarcomere

Front 211

The ___ of the PNS control the skeletal muscles.

Back 211

Motor Neurons

Front 212

The ___ of motor neurons are located in the gray matter of the ventral horn of the spinal cord & in different parts of the brain stem.

Back 212

Cell Bodies

Front 213

Motor neurons with a long axon that leaves the ventral root of the spinal cord or brain stem & synapse with individual muscle fibers.

Back 213

Their axons conduct information rapidly (220 m/second).

Hint 213

Alpha Motor Neurons

Front 214

A muscle fiber controlled by an alpha motor neuron.

Back 214

Extrafusal Muscle Fiber

Front 215

A specialized synapse between an alpha motor neuron & an extrafusal muscle fiber.

Back 215

Neuromuscular Junction

Front 216

The flattened area of an extrafusal muscle fiber where a motor neuron & the muscle fiber synapse.

Back 216

Motor End Plate

Front 217

Transmission of a neural impulse from ___ to ___ at the neuromuscular junction is similar to the transmission of neural impulses between neurons.

Back 217

Motor Neuron; Muscle Fiber

Front 218

Motor neuron releases ACh into the synaptic cleft. ACh binds to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane (the muscle fiber). EPSPs are then produced; upon sufficient excitation, an action potential is generated.

Back 218

As the action potential travels down the muscle fiber, it increases the permeability of the fiber membrane to Ca2+ ions, which causes ___ to form cross bridges with ___.

Hint 218

Myosin Heads; Actin Filaments

Front 219

At this point, the myosin head pivots, causing the myosin & actin filaments to slide past 1 another. The cross bridges then detach & reattach at a new position, which results in the sarcomere & the entire muscle fiber shortening.

Back 219

Thus, the muscle contracts, the attached bone moves, & the limb moves. When the muscle ___, the myosin & actin myofilaments slide back to their initial positions & the muscle fiber returns to its original ___.

Hint 219

Relaxes; Length

Front 220

A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease. Characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal (voluntary) muscles that increases during periods of activity & improves after periods of rest.

Back 220

Muscles that control eye & eyelid movements, facial expression, chewing, talking, & swallowing are often, but not always, involved. The muscles that control breathing & neck & limb movements may also be affected.

Hint 220

Myasthenia Gravis

Front 221

Myasthenia gravis is caused by ___ produced by the body's own immune system block, alter, or destroy the receptors for ___.

Back 221

Antibodies; Acetylcholine

Front 222

The first noticeable symptoms of myasthenia gravis may be weakness of the eye muscles, difficulty in swallowing, or slurred speech.

Back 222

Symptoms vary in type & severity.
Myasthenia gravis is not directly ___ nor is it ___.

Hint 222

Inherited; Contagious

Front 223

Each branch of an axon synapses with a single muscle fiber.

Back 223

Collectively, a motor neuron & the muscle fibers it controls form a ___.

Hint 223

Motor Unit

Front 224

An alpha motor neuron & the muscle fibers it controls.

Back 224

Motor Unit

Front 225

When the axon of an alpha motor neuron has few branches & controls only a few muscle fibers, ___ is possible.

Back 225

Fine Motor Control

Front 226

When the axon of an alpha motor neuron has many branches & controls many muscle fibers, ___ is possible.

Back 226

Gross Limb Movement

Front 227

Different types of ___ facilitate diverse abilities.

Back 227

Muscles

Front 228

A muscle fiber that contracts & fatigues slowly;

Back 228

Produces slower contractions that can be maintained for long periods of time without fatiguing.

Hint 228

Slow-Twitch Muscle

Front 229

A muscle fiber that contracts & fatigues quickly;

Back 229

Produces rapid contractions that tire quickly.

Hint 229

Fast-Twitch Muscle

Front 230

A muscle fiber that contracts at a lower rate than fast-twitch & a higher rate than slow-twitch muscles;

Back 230

Produces contractions of moderate speed & duration.

Hint 230

Intermediate-Twitch Muscle

Front 231

We use primarily ___ or ___-twitch muscles when we stand or walk; ___-twitch muscles when we run.

Back 231

Slow; Intermediate; Fast

Front 232

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.

Back 232

Reflex

Front 233

A reflex in which tapping the tendon of the knee stretches 1 of the muscles that extends the leg,

Back 233

& the resulting muscle contraction causes the leg to kick outward.

Hint 233

Patellar Reflex

Front 234

Most reflexes are produced by the ___ without involvement of the ___.

Back 234

Spinal Cord; Brain

Front 235

A spinal reflex with a single synapse between the sensory receptor & the muscle effector.

Back 235

Monosynaptic Stretch Reflex

Front 236

A structure embedded within an extrafusal muscle fiber than enables the CNS to contract a muscle to counteract the stretching of the extrafusal muscle fiber.

Back 236

Muscle Spindle

Front 237

A muscle fiber that extends the length of the muscle spindle that is surrounded by annulospiral endings.

Back 237

Intrafusal Muscle Fiber

Front 238

Sensory receptors in the central part of the muscle fiber.

Back 238

Annulospiral Endings

Front 239

When the extrafusal muscle fibers are stretched, so are the intrafusal fibers; stimulates the annulospiral endings, causing them to fire more rapidly.

Back 239

This increased neural activity travels along the Ia fibers (or axons) of the annulospiral endings, entering the dorsal root of the spinal cord & synapsing with ___.

Hint 239

Alpha Motor Neurons

Front 240

The Ia fibers have an ___ influence on alpha motor neurons, causing the extrafusal muscle fibers to ___.

Back 240

Excitatory; Contract

Front 241

A spinal reflex with more than 1 synapse between the sensory receptor & the muscle effector.

Back 241

These reflexes are more common than monosynaptic reflexes.

Hint 241

Polysynaptic Reflex

Front 242

The automatic withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus.

Back 242

Withdrawal Reflex

Front 243

Although reflexes usually occur without mediation from the brain, the brain can influence the execution of ___ reflexes.

Back 243

Polysynaptic

Front 244

The ___ can also inhibit reflexes to prevent damage to our muscles.

Back 244

Spinal Cord

Front 245

Receptor located among the fibers of tendons that measures the total amount of force exerted by the muscle on the bone to which the tendon is attached.

Back 245

Enables motor system to control extent of muscle contraction.

Hint 245

Golgi Tendon Organs

Front 246

___ of muscle contraction reflects the ___ exerted by the muscle on the bone—the greater the contraction of the muscle fibers, the greater the force on the bone.

Back 246

Strength; Force

Front 247

With too much force, Golgi tendon organs reduce the contraction of ___, resulting in the muscle exerting ___ pressure on the tendon & bone.

Back 247

Extrafusal Muscle Fibers; Less

Front 248

An inhibitory interneuron excited by an alpha motor neuron that causes it to stop firing, preventing excessive muscle contraction.

Back 248

Combats muscle damage that can result from fatigue, which results from muscles contracting often in a short period of time.

Hint 248

Renshaw Cell

Front 249

___ does not always lead to movement. In fact, all of our muscles remain contracted (tense) even when no movement is occurring.

Back 249

Contraction

Front 250

A neuron that synapses with intrafusal muscle fibers to produce continuous muscle tension.

Back 250

Gamma Motor Neuron

Front 251

Continuous activity of gamma motor neurons produces a constant contraction of extrafusal muscle fibers (muscle tone).

Back 251

This muscle tone is maintained at all times, except during ___.

Hint 251

REM sleep

Front 252

The gamma motor system also gives us the ability to ___ certain movements & react ___.

Back 252

Anticipate; Quickly

Front 253

3 principles govern the system responsible for voluntary movement:

Back 253

It is hierarchically organized, beginning with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Sensory input primarily integrated by the posterior parietal cortex. Learning changes the locus of control over the movements.

Front 254

The top executive in the perception-action cycle in nonhuman primates & humans;

Back 254

Cells in this area integrate sensory information across time with motor actions needed to deal with the information.

Hint 254

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Front 255

Consisting of the supplementary motor area & the premotor cortex;

Back 255

Involved in the planning & sequencing of voluntary movements.

Hint 255

Secondary Motor Cortex

Front 256

Receives input from the posterior parietal cortex & the somatosensory cortex.

Back 256

Supplemental Motor Area

Front 257

receives input mostly from the visual cortex.

Back 257

Premotor Cortex

Front 258

___ seems to plan & sequence movements guided by internally generated stimuli (intentions);

Back 258

___ does the same for externally guided movements.

Hint 258

Supplemental Motor Area; Premotor Cortex

Front 259

Because most movements are guided by both intentions & external stimuli, the connections between the supplementary motor area & the premotor cortex coordinate ___.

Back 259

Movement Planning

Front 260

Neurons in the primate premotor cortex that are activated by performing an action or by watching another monkey or person performing an action.

Back 260

Also seems to exist in humans, in Broca’s area & the primary motor cortex.

Hint 260

Mirror Neuron System

Front 261

Humans learn many actions through the observation & imitation of the actions of others & the ___ provides a possible mechanism through which observation can be translated into action.

Back 261

Mirror Neuron System

Front 262

Area in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe that initiates voluntary movements; directly involved in the control of motor neurons.

Back 262

Stimulation of the area results in movements involving groups of muscles, not individual muscles.

Hint 262

Primary Motor Cortex

Front 263

The movement of different body parts is elicited by stimulation of different regions of the ___.

Back 263

There is greater cortical representation of some body parts than of others.

Hint 263

Primary Motor Cortex

Front 264

Body parts that produce ___ movements (e.g., hands & mouth) have greater representation than do parts that produce ___ movements (e.g., arms & legs).

Back 264

Precise; Gross

Front 265

The primary motor cortex shows great ___ in its response to sensory & motor changes.

Back 265

Plasticity

Front 266

The sensory receptors in the muscles & joints send information about the external environment to the ___ & ___.

Back 266

Somatosensory Cortex; Posterior Parietal Cortex

Front 267

After information is sent to the somatosensory cortex & the posterior parietal cortex, it goes to the ___, the ___, & then the ___.

Back 267

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex; Secondary Motor Cortex; Primary Motor Cortex

Front 268

The ___ becomes aware of the status of the muscles that must be activated & the location of the body parts that must be moved in order to exert the right amount of force.

Back 268

Primary Motor Cortex

Front 269

Integrates input from the visual, auditory, & skin senses & relays it to the primary motor cortex, which uses the information to guide our movements.

Back 269

Damage results in difficulty responding to visual, auditory, or somatosensory stimuli presented to the contralateral (opposite) side of the body.

Hint 269

Posterior Parietal Cortex

Front 270

Damage to the posterior parietal cortex that results in difficulty responding to visual, auditory, or somatosensory stimuli presented to the contralateral side of the body.

Back 270

Contralateral Neglect

Front 271

The primary motor cortex uses information from the posterior parietal cortex, somatosensory cortex, & secondary motor cortex to initiate movement.

Back 271

From the primary motor cortex & other cortical areas, 2 fiber tracts travel through the ___ & ___ & connect with the PNS in order to produce movement.

Hint 271

Midbrain; Hindbrain

Front 272

Motor pathway that controls movements of fingers, hands, arms, trunk, legs, feet.

Back 272

Corticospinal Tract

Front 273

The axons of the corticospinal tract that cross over in the medulla to connect to the opposite side of the spinal cord, controlling the movement of the fingers, hands, arms, lower legs, & feet on the opposite side of the body.

Back 273

Lateral Corticospinal Tract

Front 274

The noncrossing axons that control the movements of the trunk & upper legs on the same side of the body.

Back 274

Ventral Corticospinal Tract

Front 275

A motor pathway that controls movements of the face & tongue.

Back 275

Corticobulbar Tract

Front 276

Corticospinal tract (lateral corticospinal tract & ventral corticospinal tract) & corticobulbar tract are motor tracts that originate in the ___.

Back 276

Motor Cortex

Front 277

Caused by the degeneration of corticospinal & corticobular tracts.
Unable to function, the muscles gradually weaken, waste away (atrophy).

Back 277

Symptoms include twitching & cramping of muscles (fasciculation), loss of motor control in hands & arms, impaired use of the arms & legs, weakness & fatigue, tripping & falling, slurred speech, & difficulty breathing or swallowing.

Hint 277

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Front 278

In most cases, ALS patients do not experience impaired intellectual reasoning, vision or hearing. Eye & bladder muscles, along with sexual function & drive, are not normally affected.

Back 278

The brain eventually loses its ability to ___ & ___ voluntary movement.
There is no cure for ALS.

Hint 278

Initiate; Control

Front 279

The incidence of ALS is ___ times higher than Huntington's disease & about equal to multiple sclerosis.

Back 279

___ people throughout the U.S. currently have ALS, & ___ new cases are diagnosed each year.

Hint 279

5; 30,000; 8,000

Front 280

1 of 4 motor pathways originating in different parts of the subcortex that control movements of the trunk & limbs.

Back 280

Ventromedial Tract

Front 281

A ventromedial tract that plays a central role in posture.

Back 281

Vestibulospinal Tract

Front 282

A ventromedial tract that controls upper trunk (shoulder) & neck movements & coordinates the visual tracking of stimuli.

Back 282

Tectospinal Tract

Front 283

A ventromedial tract that activates the flexor muscles of the legs.

Back 283

Lateral Reticulospinal Tract

Front 284

A ventromedial tract that activates the extensor muscles of the legs.

Back 284

Medial Reticulospinal Tract

Front 285

A motor pathway that controls movements of the hands, lower arms, lower legs, & feet.

Back 285

Rubrospinal Tract

Front 286

The brain area responsible for developing rapid, coordinated responses or habits.

Back 286

Located behind & beneath the cerebral cortex; outer surface is extremely convoluted; represents 10% of the brain’s mass, but contains more than half of its neurons.

Hint 286

Cerebellum

Front 287

A habitual, rapid, well-practiced movement that does not depend on sensory feedback;

Back 287

Controlled by the cerebellum.

Hint 287

Ballistic Movement

Front 288

Input to/output from the cerebellum is conveyed by large bundles of axons called ___.

Back 288

Peduncles

Front 289

This integrates information about motor activity, balance & head position, limb position & extent of muscle contraction & determines whether ongoing movements are deviating from their intended course.

Back 289

If movements begin to deviate, the ___ can correct them by sending signals to other structures, such as the deep cerebellar nuclei.

Hint 289

Cerebellum

Front 290

An output cell from the cerebellar cortex, which has an exclusively inhibitory effect.

Back 290

Purkinje Cells

Front 291

A cerebellar neuron that has an inhibitory influence on Purkinje cells.

Back 291

Basket Cell

Front 292

Damage to the cerebellum: Difficulty maintaining a stable posture, making movements such as walking unsteady, slurred speech, & uncoordinated eye movements.

Back 292

Research suggests that the cerebellum plays a significant role in ___ in addition to its role in fine-tuning motor movements & in motor learning.

Hint 292

Cognitive Behaviors

Front 293

___ in the cerebellum are sensitive to alcohol; alcohol intoxication can lead to signs of cerebellar malfunction.

Back 293

Neurons

Front 294

Group of structures that integrates movement & controls postural adjustments & muscle tone.

Back 294

Consists of 3 subcortical nuclei: Caudate nucleus (part of neostriatum)
Putamen (part of neostriatum)
Globus pallidus (paleostriatum)

Hint 294

Basal Ganglia

Front 295

Part of the basal ganglia consisting of the caudate nucleus & putamen.

Back 295

Corpus Striatum

Front 296

Integrates movement through interconnections with the primary motor cortex, the cerebellum, substantia nigra, red nucleus, & other motor centers in the brain.

Back 296

Damage to this structure results in impairments in muscle tone, postural instability, poorly integrated movements, & difficulty performing voluntary movements (e.g., standing & walking).

Hint 296

Basal Ganglia

Front 297

A degenerative neurological disorder characterized by rigidity of the limbs & muscle tremors.

Back 297

Parkinson’s Disease

Front 298

A movement disorder characterized by slow movement.

Back 298

Bradykinesia

Front 299

A tendency in a movement disorder to speed up a walking pace to running.

Back 299

Festination

Front 300

First signs of the disease may include a tremor in 1 hand or some stiffness in the muscles of a leg. Over time, tremors & rigidity worsen; movement becomes increasingly impaired.

Back 300

___ are caused by the degeneration of the DA- producing cells of the substantia nigra that synapse with the basal ganglia.

Hint 300

Motor Disturbances

Front 301

Other symptoms of Parkinson's disease include: difficulty in speaking, lack of facial expression, apathy, lack of spontaneous blinking, cognitive deficits (e.g., problems with learning, memory, attention, & judgment).

Back 301

Damage to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system leads to the ___, whereas the rigidity & tremors are believed to result from excessive activity in a ___ extending from the ventrolateral thalamus to the primary motor cortex.

Hint 301

Bradykinesia; Neural Loop

Front 302

Suggested causes: Genetic basis; encephalitis; arteriosclerosis; Carbon monoxide or manganese poisoning; trauma to the head; Syphilitic damage to the brain; environmental toxins

Back 302

Possible treatments: Levodopa—L-dopa; a drug converted to DA in the brain, increasing levels of DA depleted by the disease. Effective in decreasing rigidity & improving movement, but less effective in reducing tremors. High dosages can result in schizophrenic-like symptoms. Possible treatments:
Thalamotomy—Psychosurgical treatment that relieves tremors & improves rigidity; does not relieve bradykinesia. Pallidotomy—Psychosurgical treatment that reduces tremors, rigidity, & bradykinesia. Deep brain stimulation. Transplantation of fetal tissue into the corpus striatum (highly controversial).

Hint 302

Parkinson's Disease

Front 303

An inherited neurological disorder characterized by a slow, progressive deterioration of motor control, cognition, & emotion. Caused by a dominant, defective gene on the short arm of chromosome 4.

Back 303

Symptoms usually begin between the ages of 30-50, usually with a decline in physical activity & loss of interest in activities (apathy).
Other symptoms include: involuntary movements of whole limbs or parts of a limb, interference of voluntary movements like walking, writing, swallowing, speaking, & cognitive deficits (e.g., impaired storage & retrieval of information, poor abstract reasoning, & diminished cognitive flexibility).
Symptoms worsen over 15 years or so, & death eventually results from a loss of muscle control.
Inability to control voluntary movements is caused by atrophy of the cerebral cortex & basal ganglia.
The death of neurons in the basal ganglia decreases GABA & ACh levels, which increases activity in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. This causes the appearance of the involuntary movements that characterize the disease.

Hint 303

Huntington’s Disease

Front 304

In 1 study, more than __% of right-handed people showed ___ dominance for language, as did __% of left-handed people.

Back 304

95; left hemisphere; 70

Front 305

The remaining left-handed people were equally split between ___ & right hemisphere language dominance.

Back 305

equal dominance

Front 306

Damage to either hemisphere impairs language in most ___ people, whereas ___ people may show no language impairment following damage to the ___ hemisphere.

Back 306

left-handed; right-handed; right

Front 307

An acquired impairment in the use of language.

Back 307

Caused by traumatic damage to neural areas involved in receiving (understanding) & /or expressing (producing) language.

Hint 307

aphasia

Front 308

With aphasia, impairment is limited to language, leaving nonverbal processes such as ___ & ___ intact.

Back 308

reasoning; memory

Front 309

Difficulty producing fluent, well-articulated, & self-initiated speech.

Back 309

nonfluent aphasia

Front 310

Themost prevalent type of nonfluent aphasia.

Back 310

Broca’s aphasia

Front 311

A difficulty selecting the correct word for either written or spoken language. Language comprehension remains relatively intact.

Back 311

Caused by damage to the left cerebral hemisphere rostral to the base of the primary motor cortex; an inability to initiate well-articulated conversational speech.

Hint 311

anomia

Front 312

A severe depression of all language functioning. Exhibit poor speech comprehension & difficulty repeating words or remembering names; speech may be limited to a jargon phrase repeated in all contexts or to a phrase used inappropriately. Words are rarely used in a functional or meaningful way; do not understand the language of others.

Back 312

Caused by damage extending beyond Broca’s area into Wernicke’s area.

Hint 312

global aphasia

Front 313

Sparse, self-initiated speech with relatively good language comprehension. Person does not usually initiate speech, speaking only if strongly encouraged.
When speech does occur, it tends to be nonfluent & agrammatical.
Speech consists of only 1 or 2 words & complete sentences are rare.
Can repeat long and complex sentences fluently; has good language comprehension.

Back 313

Caused by damage to regions of the premotor cortex anterior & superior to Broca’s area, which is not damaged.

Hint 313

transcortical motor aphasia

Front 314

An inability to understand the language of others & the production of less meaningful speech than normal.

Back 314

fluent aphasia

Front 315

An inability to comprehend language. Person can speak fluently but speech is less meaningful. Uses jargon, leaves out key words, substitutes words, & includes extra words; poor reading comprehension; unintelligible writing.

Back 315

Caused by damage to the posterior portion of the superior & middle temporal gyrus & the temporoparietal cortex.

Hint 315

Wernicke’s aphasia

Front 316

Speech characterized by the use of inappropriate morphemes.

Back 316

paragrammatical speech

Front 317

Difficulty repeating verbal (orally presented) information;

Back 317

Degree of impairment depends on the length of the phrase to be repeated.

Hint 317

conduction aphasia

Front 318

An error in speaking
phonemic paraphasia—The substitution of a similar sounding word.

Anomic aphasia—A consistent difficulty finding names and substituting indefinite nouns and pronouns for substantive words.
Person has good language comprehension with fluent and grammatical speech. Absence of crucial words makes it difficult to follow what the person is saying.
Though exact cause is not known, because it is a very rare condition, it appears to be caused by damage at the left temporo-occipital junction.
Transcortical sensory aphasia—Characterized by fluent speech, poor comprehension, and anomia, along with an unusual tendency to repeat verbal stimuli.
Echolalia—A repetition of something someone has just said.
Person can repeat a sound without understanding it.
Caused by damage to areas that surround and include Wernicke’s area.

Back 318

Language comprehension remains relatively good & conversational speech is only mildly impaired.

Hint 318

paraphasia