Biological Psychology (Test 2)

Front 1

Change in biological & behavioral functioning that occurs over a 24 hour period.

Back 1

Circadian Cycle

Front 2

Intrinsic process that controls the circadian cycle.

Back 2

Circadian Rhythm

Front 3

People who are alert in the morning & drowsy & inattentive in the afternoon

Back 3

Make better grades in morning classes.

Hint 3

Larks

Front 4

Drowsy in morning, attentive in the afternoon.

Back 4

Make better grades in afternoon classes.

Hint 4

Owls

Front 5

Shows circadian cycles of electrical & biochemical activity, controls neural structures responsible for activity.

Back 5

Greater activity in the day than in the night, even in diurnal animals. Lesions that separate this from other CNS structures affect the circadian cycle; however, this brain structure maintains its cycle.

Hint 5

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Front 6

25 hour (or more) sleep-wake cycle that develops in the absence of natural light-dark cycles.

Back 6

Free Running Rhythm

Front 7

Serve to reset the biological clock every 24 hours.

Back 7

Position of the sun, outdoor temperature, etc.

Hint 7

Zeitgebers

Front 8

Seems that broad spectrum light is the zeitgeber that resets our ___ ___.

Back 8

Circadian Rhythm

Front 9

Detect features of light stimuli & later are analyzed in cortical areas.

Back 9

Visual Photoreceptors

Front 10

Detect the dusk-dawn cycle.

Back 10

Nonvisual Photoreceptors

Front 11

Information from the nonvisual receptors travels via the ___ ___ to the ___which is reset by the information.

Back 11

Retinohypothalamic Tract; SCN

Front 12

SCN influences secretion of ___ by the pineal gland.

Back 12

Melatonin

Front 13

SCN activity (in response to light) ___ melatonin release; lack of SCN activity (in response to dim light) ___ release.

Back 13

Inhibits; Increases

Front 14

Promotes sleep.

Back 14

Alters the circadian pacemaker.

Hint 14

Melatonin

Front 15

A form of depression caused by reduced daylight during the winter months.

Back 15

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Front 16

___ therapy is used to treat SAD.

Back 16

Light

Front 17

Regulate circadian rhythm.

Back 17

Found in mice & Drosophila (fruit fly)

Hint 17

Clock Genes

Front 18

A schedule that shortens the day by requiring a worker to start on the late shift & then rotate to an earlier shift the following week.

Back 18

Phase-Advance Shift

Front 19

A schedule that lengthens the day by requiring a worker to rotate to a later shift each week.

Back 19

Phase-Delay Shift

Front 20

A ___ shift results in greater job satisfaction, fewer health problems, etc.

Back 20

Phase-Delay

Front 21

A ___ shift is associated with less job satisfaction, more health problems, etc.

Back 21

Phase-Advance

Front 22

Jet lag is worse when the traveler is going from ___ to ___ (phase-___).

Back 22

West; East; Advance

Front 23

Jet lag is less when the traveler is going from ____ to ____ (phase-____).

Back 23

East; West; Delay

Front 24

Tips to avoid jet lag include (3):

Back 24

Modifying diet

Hint 24

Use of bright light & melatonin

Front 25

18-24 Hz low voltage desynchronized activity.

Back 25

Alert.

Hint 25

Beta Activity

Front 26

8-12 Hz larger more synchronized activity

Back 26

Relaxed

Hint 26

Alpha Activity

Front 27

1-4 Hz larger more synchronized activity

Back 27

Sleep.

Hint 27

Delta Activity

Front 28

A network of nuclei & pathways beginning in the hindbrain & extending through the midbrain.

Back 28

Consists of as many as five specific cell groups.

Hint 28

Recticular Activating System

Front 29

Produces cortical activation.

Back 29

Reticular Activating System

Front 30

RAS isolated from cortex

Back 30

Constant sleep.

Hint 30

Cerveau Isolé Preparation

Front 31

Less RAS isolation.

Back 31

Normal sleep cycles.

Hint 31

Encephalé Isolé Preparation

Front 32

Involved in control of cortical activity, behavioral alertness, & REM sleep.

Back 32

Transmitter substance is NE.

Hint 32

Locus Coeruleus

Front 33

Sleep research is conducted using ___ recording of the cortical EEG.

Back 33

Macroelectrode

Front 34

Characterized mostly by theta activity (waves with a frequency of 4 to 7 Hz).

Back 34

Light sleep

Hint 34

Stage 1

Front 35

Theta activity plus sleep spindles (bursts of 12 to 14 Hz activity),

Back 35

And k complexes (a single large negative wave followed by a single large positive wave).

Hint 35

Stage 2

Front 36

Delta activity (waves of 1 to 4 Hz) is added.

Back 36

Stage 3

Front 37

Predominately delta waves.

Back 37

Stage 4

Front 38

The term applied to stages 3 & 4 which consists predominately of slow wave activity.

Back 38

SWS (Slow-Wave Sleep)

Front 39

EEG patterns resemble the waking state.

Back 39

Eyes move behind closed lids & muscle tone is absent.

Hint 39

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

Front 40

Also called paradoxical sleep because the brain waves resemble waves that are present in waking patterns of EEG.

Back 40

Dreaming is reported during this stage of sleep.

Hint 40

REM Sleep

Front 41

___ ___ may provide the foundation for visual imagery we experience during dreams.

Back 41

Begin in the pons, continue to the LGN of thalamus, & end in the occipital cortex.

Hint 41

PGO Waves

Front 42

3 views (functions) of sleep:

Back 42

Restorative
Learning & memory
Evolutionary

Front 43

Valuable substances manufactured during sleep:

Back 43

Growth Hormone
Protein

Front 44

Growth hormones is produced during ___ sleep. Protein synthesis during ___ sleep.

Back 44

Deep; REM

Front 45

Sleep deprivation produces:

Back 45

Tardiness, more feelings of depression, greater daytime sleepiness, impaired cognitive ability & inability to recognize the impairment

Hint 45

Students without sleep deprivation did not report as many of these symptoms.

Front 46

Produces fatigue, lack of concentration, & irritability.

Back 46

Produces REM rebound.

Hint 46

REM Sleep Deprivation

Front 47

Produced no severe or permanent impairment.

Back 47

Sleep rebound after deprivation with a higher percentage of recovery for stages 3 & 4; suggests they may be important in a restorative function.

Hint 47

Randy Gardner’s sleep deprivation (11 days)

Front 48

May produce microsleep periods.

Back 48

Particularly dangerous for truck drivers or other equipment operators.

Hint 48

3 or more days of sleep deprivation

Front 49

People appear to be awake but the EEG indicates stage 1 sleep.

Back 49

Microsleep

Front 50

___ ___ ___ impairs memory of episodic events.

Back 50

REM Sleep Deprivation

Front 51

___ increases after training experiences in both animals & humans indicating a role in learning & memory.

Back 51

REM

Front 52

Sleep evolved to help animals conserve energy when they are less efficient in obtaining resources & to protect them from predators.

Back 52

Evolutionary Perspective

Front 53

It is at higher levels during infancy & decreases through adulthood.

Back 53

It may assist with brain development during infancy.

Hint 53

REM Sleep

Front 54

Total daily sleep ____ with age.

Back 54

Decreases

Front 55

Children born premature show higher levels of ___.

Back 55

Animals with more fully developed brains at birth show less ___ that animals with less developed brains.

Hint 55

REM

Front 56

Located in a thin strip that runs along the midline in the caudal part of the reticular formation.

Back 56

Damage to this area produces insomnia.

Hint 56

Raphé Nuclei

Front 57

____ is one of the neurotransmitters in the raphé nuclei.

Back 57

Serotonin

Front 58

____ agonists enhance sleep.

Back 58

____ antagonists decrease sleep, e.g., parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA).

Hint 58

Serotonin

Front 59

It seems the ___ may be involved in activation of the brain.

Back 59

Stimulation of this area does not produce sleep.

Hint 59

Raphé Nuclei

Front 60

An area anterior to the hypothalamus.

Back 60

Has been shown to induce sleep when stimulated.

Hint 60

Basal Forebrain Region

Front 61

Damage to this area produces sleeplessness.

Back 61

This area is also sensitive to temperature (has thermoreceptors) & warming the neurons promotes sleep.

Hint 61

Basal Forebrain Region

Front 62

Research indicates that GABAergic neurons are responsible for sleep induction in this area.

Back 62

Basal forebrain region

Front 63

___ ___ stimulation significantly reduced REM sleep.

Back 63

___ ___ stimulation produced REM sleep rebound post stimulation.

Hint 63

Locus Coeruleus

Front 64

Decreased locus coeruleus activity removes inhibition from the ___ ___ ___ which initiates REM sleep.

Back 64

Caudal Reticular Formation

Front 65

Dreaming is closely associated with REM but may be controlled by a different brain mechanism ( ___ pathways & by stimulating the ___).

Back 65

Dopaminergic; Forebrain

Front 66

Associated with a high level of cortical activity & autonomic system arousal at the beginning of a REM period.

Back 66

A person is conscious that s/he is dreaming.

Hint 66

Lucid Dream

Front 67

A long term inability to get enough sleep.

Back 67

Insomnia

Front 68

Taking a long time to fall asleep

Back 68

Insomnia

Front 69

Frequent waking during the night

Back 69

Insomnia

Front 70

Awakening before the desired arousal time

Back 70

Insomnia

Front 71

Contributing factors:
Anxiety & depression

Back 71

Contributing factors:
Drugs (stimulants & sedatives or tranquilizers)

Hint 71

Insomnia

Front 72

A sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions of sleep caused by the cessation of breathing.

Back 72

Sleep Apnea

Front 73

Sleep disorder associated with obesity.

Back 73

Twice as common in men as in women.

Hint 73

Sleep Apnea

Front 74

May lead to cardiovascular problems & traffic accidents.

Back 74

Therapies include weight loss, oral appliances, surgery, & continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP).

Hint 74

Sleep Apnea

Front 75

A sleep disorder characterized by too much sleep.

Back 75

Hypersomnia

Front 76

Getting out of bed & walking around.

Back 76

Occurs in sleep stages 3 & 4.

Hint 76

Sleepwalking (somnambulism)

Front 77

An abrupt wakening from NREM sleep

Back 77

Accompanied by intense autonomic arousal & feelings of panic.

Hint 77

Night Terror (Pavor Nocturnus)

Front 78

An NREM sleep disorder characterized by a lack of bladder control during sleep.

Back 78

Bedwetting (Nocturnal Enuresis)

Front 79

A sudden, uncontrollable sleep attack.

Back 79

Usually initiated by monotonous activity.

Hint 79

Narcolepsy

Front 80

Cataplexy, sleep paralysis, &
hallucinations are characteristics of ___.

Back 80

Narcolepsy

Front 81

A sudden, complete lack of muscle tone.

Back 81

Cataplexy

Front 82

A brief paralysis that occurs when the individual with narcolepsy is falling asleep or awakening.

Back 82

Sleep Paralysis

Front 83

There is a genetic connection with this sleep disorder.

Back 83

20-40 times higher in first-degree relatives than in the general population.

Hint 83

Narcolepsy

Front 84

Research with canines indicates narcolepsy is caused by a problem with the ___ receptor 2 gene.

Back 84

Hypocretin (Orexin)

Front 85

A problem with the hypocretin (orexin) receptor 2 gene results in a ___ in hypocretin neurotransmission.

Back 85

Deficiency

Front 86

Findings indicate that a dysfunction of the ___ ___ may cause an intrusion of REM into the waking state which is experienced as narcolepsy.

Back 86

Locus Coeruleus

Front 87

Treatment with catecholamine agonists, antidepressants, & hypocretin agonists are proposed as potential therapeutic agents for ___.

Back 87

Narcolepsy

Front 88

Person will act out a dream.

Back 88

Failure of loss of muscle tone during REM allows the person to act out REM actions.

Hint 88

REM Behavior Disorder (REM Without Atonia)

Front 89

Lesions of the dorsolateral pons produce REM behavior disorder in cats via connection to the magnocellular nucleus in the medial medulla.

Back 89

Related to Parkinson’s disease & narcolepsy.

Hint 89

REM Behavior Disorder (REM Without Atonia)

Front 90

Damage to the magnocellular nucleus produces REM without atonia & suggests that if the connection between the dorsolateral pons & the magnocellular nucleus is malfunctioning it will lead to ___ ___ ___.

Back 90

REM Behavior Disorder (REM Without Atonia)

Front 91

Any substance we can take into our body that has the power to change us either functionally or structurally.

Back 91

Exert their influence through their actions on the nervous system, particularly the brain & spinal cord.

Hint 91

Psychoactive Drug

Front 92

The study of the effects of drugs on behavior.

Back 92

Psychopharmacology

Front 93

The study of the ways in which a drug affects the living organism & the organs of the body.

Back 93

Pharmacodynamics

Front 94

The study of how a drug moves through the body, including the processes of absorption, metabolism, distribution to tissues, & elimination.

Back 94

Pharmacokinetics

Front 95

The administration of a drug through the mouth.

Back 95

The drug dissolves in the fluids of the mouth, esophagus, or stomach & is carried to the intestines, where it is absorbed into the bloodstream.

Hint 95

Oral Ingestion

Front 96

Injection of a drug into a muscle, usually the shoulder, upper arm, thigh, or buttocks.

Back 96

Intramuscular (IM) injection

Front 97

Injection of a drug through the abdominal wall into the peritoneal cavity (space surrounding major organs).

Back 97

Intraperitoneal (IP) injection

Front 98

Injection of a drug into a vein.

Back 98

Intravenous (IV) injection

Front 99

Injection of a drug under the skin.

Back 99

Subcutaneous (SC) injection

Front 100

Injection of a drug directly into the brain.

Back 100

Intracerebral injection

Front 101

Injection of a drug into the cerebral ventricles.

Back 101

Intraventricular injection

Front 102

The administration of a drug through the lungs.

Back 102

Inhalation

Front 103

The administration of a drug by absorption through the skin or mucous membranes.

Back 103

Absorption

Front 104

In some cases, drugs can diffuse across ____ ____; in other cases, a drug must cross the ____ ____ ____ in order to produce an effect.

Back 104

Cell membranes; Blood-brain barrier

Front 105

The speed with which the body ____ a drug is a factor in how long the effect of the drug will last.

Back 105

Eliminates

Front 106

The amount of time required for the body to eliminate half of a drug.

Back 106

Hald-life

Front 107

The longer the half-life, the longer a drug continues to have a ____ effect.

Back 107

Physiological

Front 108

A pattern of drug use that results in negative effects.

Back 108

Substance abuse

Front 109

The compulsive use of a substance.

Back 109

Substance dependence (addiction)

Front 110

Changes in the body that produce intense physical symptoms when the drug taking is stopped.

Back 110

Physical dependence

Front 111

Craving for the way the drug makes the individual feel, for the pleasure &/or relief from discomfort that come from taking the drug.

Back 111

Psychological Dependence

Front 112

A decrease in the effects of a drug resulting from repeated use.

Back 112

Tolerance

Front 113

A physical or psychological problem that results from stopping the use of a drug.

Back 113

Withdrawal symptoms

Front 114

Drug can either ____ or ____ the transmission of neural impulses.

Back 114

Facilitate; inhibit

Front 115

Drugs that mimic or enhance the activities of a neurotransmitter.

Back 115

Agonists

Front 116

Drugs that block or inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Back 116

Antagonists

Front 117

Drug binds to & activates postsynaptic receptors or increases neurotransmitter effect

Back 117

Agonists

Front 118

Drug blocks deactivation by blocking degradation or reuptake

Back 118

Agonists

Front 119

Drug increases neurotransmitter synthesis

Back 119

Agonists

Front 120

Drug increases neurotransmitter amount by destroying degrading enzymes

Back 120

Agonists

Front 121

Drug increases amount of neurotransmitter release

Back 121

Agonists

Front 122

Drug binds to autoreceptors & blocks their activity.

Back 122

Agonists

Front 123

Drug is a false transmitter, preventing a neurotransmitter from binding to a receptor by attaching to the receptor itself

Back 123

Antagonists

Front 124

Drug blocks neurotransmitter synthesis

Back 124

Antagonists

Front 125

Drug causes neurotransmitter to leak from vesicles

Back 125

Antagonists

Front 126

Drug blocks release of neurotransmitter from presynaptic neuron

Back 126

Antagonists

Front 127

Drug activates autoreceptors

Back 127

Antagonists

Front 128

When classifying psychoactive drugs of abuse, the following classifications are used:

Back 128

Opioids
Depressants
Psychostimulants
Psychedelic drugs
Marijuana

Front 129

A drug derived from the opium poppy,

Back 129

Or a drug that has an action comparable to that of drugs derived from the opium poppy.

Hint 129

Opioid

Front 130

A drug must act on the CNS to produce stupor or sleep-inducing effects to qualify as an ____.

Back 130

opioid

Front 131

Opioids are ____, used for relief of pain.

Back 131

Analgesics

Front 132

Natural
Semisynthetic
Synthetic

Back 132

Opiate classifications

Front 133

A natural opiate drug obtained directly from the opium poppy.

Back 133

Opium

Front 134

Extremely potent natural opioid that is the main alkaloid compound found in opium.

Back 134

Morphine

Front 135

An alkaloid found in opium that is less potent than morphine.

Back 135

Codeine

Front 136

Opium, morphine, & codeine are ____ opiates.

Back 136

Natural

Front 137

Opiates that are combinations of natural opiates & other chemicals.

Back 137

Semisynthetic

Front 138

A powerful semisynthetic opioid made by reacting acetic anhydride with morphine.

Back 138

Heroin

Front 139

Opiates that are manufactured in the laboratory.

Back 139

Synthetic

Front 140

Percodan and OxyContin are ____ opiates.

Back 140

Synthetic

Front 141

The mechanism of action of opiates ____ agonist.

Back 141

Endorphin

Front 142

Negative social consequences (illegal status of drug); Highly addictive, with tolerance developing quickly; Withdrawal symptoms are intense & can last several days; Physical dependence (suppression of endorphin production); Psychological dependence (conditioning of withdrawal to the environment).

Back 142

Long-term effects of opioid use

Front 143

____ symptoms include chills, diarrhea, nausea, & sweating, with tremors & intense cramps occurring during extremely intense ___ that can last for several days.

Back 143

Withdrawal (Opioid)

Front 144

____ ____ results from the suppression of endorphin production that occurs with repeated use.

Back 144

Physical dependence (opioid)

Front 145

____ ____ occurs as a result of conditioning of withdrawal to the environment associated with drug use.

Back 145

Psychological dependence (opioid)

Front 146

A type of psychoactive drug that acts on the CNS to slow down mental & physical functioning.

Back 146

Depressant

Front 147

A drug that has a calming effect at low doses,

Back 147

And a sleep-inducing effect at higher doses.

Hint 147

Sedative-Hypnotic Drug

Front 148

Major types are:
alcohol
barbiturate sedative-hypnotics
benzodiazepine anxiolytics

Back 148

Depressent

Front 149

A powerful depressant that strongly influences consciousness & the ability to respond effectively to the environment.

Back 149

Alcohol

Front 150

Types of alcohol:
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
____ (alcohol content = 10% to 14%)
____ (alcohol content = 3.6% to 6.0%)
____ ____ (alcohol content = 40% to 50%)

Back 150

Wine; beer; distilled spirits

Front 151

The effects of alcohol depend on ____ ____ & the behavioral effects vary from person to person.

Back 151

Dose Level

Front 152

Because the alcohol concentration of drinks varies, ____ ____ ____ provides an objective measure for examining alcohol’s effects.

Back 152

Blood alcohol content (BAC)

Front 153

Alcohol affects ____ receptors by enabling ____ to bind more tightly to its receptors.

Back 153

GABA A; GABA

Front 154

Alcohol produces a(n) ____ effect because the enhanced influence of GABA produces relaxation & decreases anxiety.

Back 154

Anxiolytic

Front 155

Alcohol disrupts glutamatergic transmission by ____ the NMDA receptor.

Back 155

inhibiting

Front 156

Continued use of alcohol can lead to a(n) ____ in the number of NDMA receptors which can lead to seizures, delirium, tremors, & neuronal death when alcohol use stops.

Back 156

Increase

Front 157

Pleasure is also produced by alcohol by the ____ action of alcohol on opiate receptors.

Back 157

Agonist

Front 158

Alcoholism or alcohol dependence occurs in approximately __ of adult drinkers, in which consumption of alcohol produces physical, mental, and/or social impairment.

Back 158

10%

Front 159

Repeated use of alcohol leads to ____.

Back 159

Tolerance

Front 160

____ ____ leads to withdrawal symptoms that range from restlessness to tremors, insomnia, anxiety, mental confusion, & hallucinations.

Back 160

Physical Dependence

Front 161

____ ____ occurs as a result of conditioning of withdrawal to environments associated with alcohol use.

Back 161

Psychological dependence

Front 162

Use of alcohol during pregnancy can lead to ____ ____ ____.

Back 162

It is characterized by low birth weight & diminished height, distinctive facial features, MR, & behavioral problems.

Hint 162

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Front 163

A type of sedative-hypnotic drug that is a derivative of barbituric acid.

Back 163

Barbiturates

Front 164

Barbiturates can be classified as (3):

Back 164

Ultrashort-acting, Short-intermediate-acting, & Long-acting

Front 165

Take effect within a minute & lasts up to 3 hours.

Back 165

Used as anesthetics & include thiopental (Pentothal) & thiamylal (Surital).

Hint 165

Ultra-Short Acting Barbituates

Front 166

Take effect after 15-40 minutes & act for up to 6hours.

Back 166

Used as sedatives & include pentobarbital (Nembutal) & secobarbital (Seconal).

Hint 166

Short-Intermediate-Acting Barbiturates

Front 167

Take effect in about 1 hour & last for as long as 16 hours.

Back 167

Used as anticonvulsant & include phenobarbital (Luminal).

Hint 167

Long-Acting Barbiturates

Front 168

Have been widely prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders.

Back 168

Have been shown to effectively reduce anxiety, usually within an hour of administration.

Hint 168

Benzodiazepines

Front 169

They are prescribed for short-term, intermittent use as-needed.

Back 169

As anxiety tends to wax & wane, patients with anxiety disorders generally take them when they feel they need them.

Hint 169

Benzodiazepines

Front 170

Long-term, continuous use of the ____is problematic because of the rapid development of tolerance & the high risk of physical & psychological dependence.

Back 170

Benzodiazepines

Front 171

The core chemical structure of all the benzodiazepines is the fusion of a ____ ring & a ____ ring.

Back 171

Benzene; Diazepine

Front 172

____ can be classified depending on how rapidly the drug takes to be effective (or how lipid-soluble) & how long the drug continues to act (or its half-life).

Back 172

Benzodiazepines

Front 173

___ & ___ ___ benzodiazepines are generally used for the treatment of insomnia, while the ___ ___ benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety.

Back 173

Short-; Intermediate-Acting; Longer-Acting

Front 174

The benzodiazepines bind to the benzodiazepine site of the GABA A receptor, which allows ___ released into the synaptic cleft to bind more effectively & for longer periods of time to the ___ ___.

Back 174

GABA; Postsynaptic Membrane

Front 175

GABA acts on the ____ GABA A receptor to open up Cl- ion channels, thereby ____ the postsynaptic membrane.

Back 175

Postsynaptic; hyperpolarizing

Front 176

As GABA is a ____ antagonist, hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane ____ activity in the nervous system.

Back 176

Glutamate; decreases

Front 177

The ____ effects of the benzodiazepines are mediated by ____ receptors in the locus coeruleus, the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and cingulate cortex.

Back 177

Anxiolytic; GABA

Front 178

The benzodiazepines produce ____ amnesia, causing the forgetting of events while under the medication’s influence (benzodiazepine midazolam [Versed]).

Back 178

Anterograde

Front 179

An increased excitement, irritability, hostility, and impulsivity, called ____ ____, occurs in some cases with the benzodiazepines.

Back 179

Paradoxical disinhibition

Front 180

In rare cases, this can cause extreme cases of rage or violent behavior.

Back 180

It is assumed that this occurs as the result of the disinhibition of social constraint.

Hint 180

Paradoxical Disinhibition

Front 181

____ ____ is most likely to be seen in children and the elderly.

Back 181

Paradoxical disinhibition

Front 182

Drowsiness, dizziness, slurred speech, & decreased alertness & concentration, as well as decreased libido & depression. are common side effects of ____.

Back 182

Benzodiazepines

Front 183

Benzodiazepines: Injuries especially in the elderly, may result from falling due to ____ ____.

Back 183

Reduced coordination

Front 184

The high potential of the ____ to be abused limits their use for treating long-standing anxiety disorders.

Back 184

Benzodiazepines

Front 185

Instead of benzodiazepines, antidepressant ___ & ___ have proven to be very effective not only treating major depressive disorder, but also anxiety disorders that are long-standing (generalized & social anxiety disorder).

Back 185

SSRIs; SNRIs

Front 186

Because symptom relief occurs slowly after ___ ___ use begins, ___ also would be taken for several weeks until the antidepressants become effective.

Back 186

SSRI/SNRI; benzodiazepines

Front 187

There is a significant ___ between major depressive disorder & anxiety disorders.

Back 187

Comorbidity

Front 188

Of individuals diagnosed with a major depressive disorder, __ will be diagnosed with a generalized anxiety disorder & __ with a social anxiety disorder. For these individuals, the ___ not only treat depressive symptoms, but also anxiety.

Back 188

15%; 20%; SSRIs

Front 189

The ___ are highly additive.

Back 189

Barbiturate/benzodiazines

Front 190

Tolerance to ___ & ___ develops quickly due to GABA A receptor downregulation, which decreases the number of high affinity GABA A receptors, & thereby, decreases the effectiveness of the ___ & ___.

Back 190

Barbiturates; benzodiazepines

Front 191

___ ___ to the benzodiazepines makes it difficult for the individual to stop using the drug.

Back 191

Physical dependence

Front 192

With benzodiazepines, ___ ___ include anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, dizziness, tremors, & seizures.

Back 192

Withdrawal symptoms

Front 193

With benzodiapepines, ___ ___ occurs a result of conditioning of withdrawal to environments associated with drug use.

Back 193

Psychological dependence

Front 194

The consumption of ___ with a ___ or ___ can be extremely dangerous.

Back 194

Alcohol; barbiturate; benzodiazepine

Front 195

When alcohol is taken in combination with either a barbiturate or benzodiazepine, they have a ___ effect.

Back 195

Synergistic

Front 196

The more alcohol & either a ___ or a ___ are taken together, the worse the interaction, which can cause severe sedation, resulting in mental confusion, a loss of consciousness, & death.

Back 196

Barbiturate; Benzodiazepine

Front 197

A drug that produces alertness by enhancing the functioning of the sympathetic nervous system & the reticular formation.

Back 197

Four types of ___:
amphetamine
cocaine
caffeine
nicotine

Hint 197

Psychostimulant

Front 198

A collective term for psychostimulant drugs typically used to treat ADHD & sleep disorders.

Back 198

Amphetamine

Front 199

Encompasses three related drugs:
amphetamine or levoamphetamine (Benzedrine),
dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), &
methamphetamine (speed) amphetamine.

Back 199

Amphetamine

Front 200

The most commonly abused amphetamine.

Back 200

Methamphetamine (speed)

Front 201

Person experiences greater energy, a decreased need to sleep, reduced appetite, & positive affect (mood).

Back 201

Amphetamine

Front 202

Increases NE & DA release from the presynaptic membrane.

Back 202

Blocks the reuptake of both neurotransmitters.

Hint 202

Amphetamine

Front 203

Increases NE & DA availability but only by blocking neurotransmitter reuptake.

Back 203

Neural areas involved in arousal & pleasure are affected by the agonistic effects of these drugs.

Hint 203

Cocaine

Front 204

A potent form of cocaine made by mixing cocaine hydrochloride with ammonia or baking soda & water.

Back 204

The resulting crystals are smoked in a pipe.

Hint 204

Crack

Front 205

A psychostimulant found in various plants that increases alertness & decreases fatigue.

Back 205

Leads to clearer thought processing, reduced drowsiness, more rapid reaction times, enhanced intellectual functioning, & an overall positive feeling.

Hint 205

Caffeine

Front 206

A psychostimulant found in the leaves of the tobacco plant that increases alertness & decreases fatigue.

Back 206

Most commonly ingested by smoking cigarettes, cigars, or pipes.

Hint 206

Nicotine

Front 207

A psychostimulant extracted from the leaves of the coca plant that increases alertness, decreases fatigue, & produces a pleasurable emotional state.

Back 207

It is an alkaloid compound obtained as white, odorless crystals or crystalline powder.

Hint 207

Cocaine

Front 208

Indirectly increases glutamate release by blocking the inhibitory effect of adenosine.

Back 208

It also has an agonistic effect on DA neurons in the prefrontal cortex.

Hint 208

Caffeine

Front 209

Activates cholinergic receptors in both the PNS & CNS.

Back 209

Increased DA levels in the CNS account for the reinforcing, psychostimulant, antidepressant, & addictive actions.

Hint 209

Nicotine

Front 210

With psychoactive drugs, ___ ___ leads to withdrawal symptoms that range from:

Back 210

A lack of alertness & feelings of lethargy to sleeping for up to 48 hours & depression lasting several days or weeks.

Hint 210

Physical Dependence

Front 211

Frequent or excessive use of amphetamines or cocaine can cause ___ ___ ___,

Back 211

which is associated with paranoia (feelings of persecution) as well as delusions & hallucinations.

Hint 211

Stimulant-Induced Psychosis

Front 212

Long –term ___ use can lead to brain damage & motor & cognitive impairment.

Back 212

Psychostimulant

Front 213

A drug that profoundly alters a person’s state of consciousness.

Back 213

Sensational, perceptual, & emotional changes occur as the result.

Hint 213

Psychedelic Drug (Hallucinogens)

Front 214

Peyote, Mescaline, Psilocybin & Psilocin, LSD, PCP, & MDMA

Back 214

Psychedelic Drugs

Front 215

A psychedelic drug obtained from the peyote cactus plant.

Back 215

Peyote

Front 216

The psychoactive ingredient in peyote.

Back 216

Mescaline

Front 217

Psychedelic drugs obtained from fungi (mushrooms).

Back 217

Psilocybin & Psilocin

Front 218

A powerful synthetic psychedelic drug.

Back 218

Acid.

Hint 218

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

Front 219

A powerful synthetic psychedelic drug.

Back 219

Angel dust.

Hint 219

Phencyclidine (PCP)

Front 220

A synthetic psychoactive drug that induces a state of consciousness that facilitates communication.

Back 220

Ecstasy.

Hint 220

MDMA

Front 221

Perhaps the biggest danger of psychedelic drugs is the ___ of effects.

Back 221

Unpredictability

Front 222

Flashbacks, or hallucinations, can be experienced long after drug use.

Back 222

Psychoactive Drug

Front 223

There is no evidence of physical dependence or withdrawal.

Back 223

Tolerance occurs with frequent use.

Hint 223

Psychoactive Drug

Front 224

Neurological problems such as memory deficits can occur with ___ use.

Back 224

Psychedelic

Front 225

A drug obtained from a mixture of crushed leaves, flowers, stems, & seeds of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa.

Back 225

Marijuana

Front 226

The psychoactive ingredient in marijuana.

Back 226

It has been medically used to treat nausea & stimulate appetite.

Hint 226

THC (Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol)

Front 227

Physical dependence leads to withdrawal that include restlessness, irritability, & nausea.

Back 227

Tolerance develops with repeated use.

Hint 227

Marijuana

Front 228

Use of ___ leads to a vulnerability to the same types of cancers & respiratory problems as cigarette smokers.

Back 228

Psychological dependence leads to craving in environments associated with drug use.

Hint 228

Marijuana

Front 229

Characterized by powerful & long-lasting behavioral changes,

Back 229

Including cravings & reward seeking, that can reinstated after long periods of abstinence.

Hint 229

Addiction

Front 230

Addiction occurs to a wide range of situations, which have no common structural features other than contributing to:

Back 230

Increased ___ activity in the ___ ___ & other structures in the mesolimbic reinforcement system.

Hint 230

Dopamine; Nucleus Accumbens

Front 231

The high levels of instrumental or operant behavior exhibited when responding leads to activation of reinforcement areas of the brain.

Back 231

The part of the CNS that mediates the influence of reinforcement on behavior.

Hint 231

Mesolimbic Reinforcement System

Front 232

Detects whether sufficient motivation is present for voluntary behavior to occur.

Back 232

Tegmentostriatal Pathway

Front 233

Structures in the ___ ___ play a role in the storage of a memory.

Back 233

Nigrostriatal Pathway

Front 234

The neural pathway that begins in the lateral hypothalamus, goes through the MFB & ventral tegmental area,

Back 234

Terminates in the nucleus accumbens, & governs the motivational properties of reinforcers.

Hint 234

Tegmentostriatal Pathway

Front 235

A structure in the tegmentostriatal reinforcement system that projects to the nucleus accumbens.

Back 235

Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

Front 236

A basal forebrain structure that plays a significant role in the influence of reinforcement on behavior.

Back 236

Nucleus Accumbens (NA)

Front 237

A neural pathway that begins in the substantia nigra & projects to the neostriatum & that serves to facilitate reinforcement-

Back 237

Induced enhancement of memory consolidation.

Hint 237

Nigrostriatal Pathway

Front 238

The reinforcing properties of cocaine & amphetamines results, in part, from their ability to activate the ___ mesolimbic pathway, including the ___ ___.

Back 238

Dopaminergic; Nucleus Accumbens

Front 239

Natural reinforcers, such as food & water, cause the release of ___ in the ___ ___.

Back 239

Dopamine; Nucleus Accumbens

Front 240

Researchers have also found increased dopamine levels in the ___ ___ following the administration of alcohol, marijuana, & nicotine.

Back 240

Nucleus Accumbens

Front 241

In animals, destruction of ___ ___ in this pathway weakens the reinforcing properties of cocaine & amphetamine.

Back 241

Dopaminergic Neurons

Front 242

Drugs that block ___ ___ cause animals to reduce or stop behaviors they have been using to obtain cocaine or amphetamine.

Back 242

Dopamine Receptors

Front 243

Drug experience leads to changes in the structure & function of dopaminergic neurons in the ___ ___.

Back 243

Mesolimbic Pathway

Front 244

After repeated drug use, the structure of the dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic pathway are altered by the ___ of the proteins CREB & c-FOS.

Back 244

Upregulation

Front 245

The CREB & c-FOS proteins act to increase dendritic branching, to increase the numbers of D 2 receptors, & increase the sensitivity to ___.

Back 245

Dopamine

Front 246

Changes in the structure & sensitivity of the mesolimbic pathway lead to both ___ & ___ ___.

Back 246

Psychomotor; Incentive Sensitization

Front 247

___ ___ refers to a drug’s potential to increase motor activity & drug-seeking behaviors after repeated administration.

Back 247

Psychomotor Sensitization

Front 248

___ ___ is an increase in the incentive value of the drug as well as cues associated with drug use.

Back 248

Incentive Sensitization

Front 249

Changes in the structure & sensitivity of the ___ ___ allow drug-associated stimuli to elicit drug-seeking behaviors.

Back 249

Mesolimbic Pathway

Front 250

Individual differences in preference for drugs may reflect differences in ___ ___.

Back 250

Mesolimbic Pathways

Front 251

___ differences appear to be an important cause of the variability in response to reinforcers, which may explain why some people exhibit a greater potential for substance dependence than others.

Back 251

Genetic

Front 252

It appears that a defect in the dopaminergic system causes people to abuse certain substances in order to obtain greater stimulation of their ___ ___ ___.

Back 252

Dopaminergic Reward System

Front 253

The ___ ___ ___ also appears to contribute to compulsive behaviors like pathological gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive eating, & compulsive shopping as well as drug dependency and abuse.

Back 253

Mesocortical Dopamine System

Front 254

Dopamine ___, such as pramipexole & ropinirole, significantly ___ the likelihood of compulsive behaviors.

Back 254

Agonists; Increased

Front 255

A gene variation that produces fewer ___ ___ in the mesocortical dopamine system has been found in individuals who engage in compulsive behaviors.

Back 255

Dopamine Receptors

Front 256

___ is an mu opoid ___ whose effects develop gradually over several hours (rather than producing the “rush” associated with heroin & other opoids) & lasts for about 24 hours.

Back 256

Methadone; Agonist

Front 257

Methadone also is a glutamate NMDA receptor ___, & thus acts to decrease glutamate neuronal activity.

Back 257

Antagonist

Front 258

Methadone’s ___ effects on glutamate activity also is thought to contribute to the decreased craving for the opoids.

Back 258

Antagonist

Front 259

There are significant aversive side-effects of methadone, including:

Back 259

Gastrointestinal problems, agitation, insomnia, weight gain, seizures, & memory loss.

Front 260

To counter the aversive side-effects, the dosage of ___ can be reduced.

Back 260

Unfortunately, the use of ___ often ends as a results of these aversive side-effects.

Hint 260

Methadone

Front 261

Increased sensitivity to pain, agitation, anxiety, gastrointestinal distress, tachycardia, chills, & tremors.

Back 261

Methadone Withdrawal Symptoms

Front 262

The withdrawal symptoms occurring when methadone is no longer used can lead to the resumption of ___ use.

Back 262

The majority of ___ users receiving methadone treatment relapse.

Front 263

Many heroin users switch to other drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, cocaine, or amphetamine when they stop taking methadone.

Back 263

Methadone has become an illicit street drug, with the same harmful consequences as ___.

Hint 263

Heroin

Front 264

Naltroxone is a ___ ___ that blocks the same opoid receptors as does heroin & methadone.

Back 264

Opioid Antagonist

Front 265

Efficacy studies find that ___ reduces cravings for heroin & other opoids.

Back 265

Side-effects include gastrointestinal distress, agitation, anxiety, nervousness, restlessness, dizziness, fainting, headache, tachycardia, & seizures that can lead to discontinuance of use.

Hint 265

Naltroxone

Front 266

___ must be taken daily.

Back 266

A long-lasting intramuscular form (Vivitrol) is available than is administered once a month.

Hint 266

Naltroxone

Front 267

___ is better tolerated than naltroxone & has been shown to significantly reduce both opoid cravings & opoid consumption.

Back 267

Vititrol

Front 268

___ works best when combined with the use of behavioral therapies.

Back 268

Contingency Management
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Hint 268

Naltroxone

Front 269

Disulfiram (Antabuse) blocks the enzyme ___ ___ from breaking acetaldehyde into acetic acid (alcohol is first broken by the liver into acetaldehyde).

Back 269

Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase

Front 270

___ is the major cause of a “hangover.”

Back 270

Acetaldehyde

Front 271

___ increases acetaldehyde level by 5 to 10 times normal & thereby creates a major “hangover” within 5 to 10 minutes after alcohol intake.

Back 271

Antabuse

Front 272

The negative effects of taking ___ & alcohol include accelerated heart rate, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting severe headache, & mental confusion that can last up to several hours.

Back 272

Disulfiram

Front 273

Efficacy studies have found extremely high rates of noncompliance that can be improved by ___ ___ that release disulfiram continuously for up to 12 weeks, or ___ ___of the drug.

Back 273

Subdermal Implants; Supervised Administration

Front 274

Naltroxone is a(n) ___ ___ that blocks the effects of alcohol-induced endorphins on the ___ ___.

Back 274

Opioid Antagonist; Opiate Receptors

Front 275

Naltroxone by ___ opiate receptors in the mesolimbic reinforcement system, ___ dopamine release into the nucleus accumbens.

Back 275

Blocking; Decreasing

Front 276

Efficacy studies find that naltroxone reduced cravings for alcohol & significantly reduced alcohol intake.

Back 276

Naltroxone is most effective in patients with either a:

Hint 276

High level of craving or a strong family history of problems with alcohol use.

Front 277

Gastrointestinal distress, agitation, anxiety, nervousness, restlessness, dizziness, fainting, headache, tachycardia, & seizures that can lead to discontinuance of use.

Back 277

Naltroxone Side-Effects

Front 278

___ must be taken daily.

Back 278

___ works best when combined with the use of behavioral therapies (contingency management, cognitive behavior therapy).

Hint 278

Naltroxone

Front 279

A long-lasting intramuscular form of naltroxone is available than is administered once a month.

Back 279

It is better tolerated than naltroxone & has been shown to significantly reduce both alcohol cravings & alcohol consumption.

Hint 279

Vivitrol

Front 280

___ (Antabuse) increases dopamine levels in the brain by blocking the activity of dopamine-b-hydroxylase (DBH), which acts to metabolize dopamine.

Back 280

The combination of ___ & cocaine raises dopamine to excessive levels, which increases the unpleasant effects associated with cocaine use, such as anxiety & paranoia.

Hint 280

Disulfiram

Front 281

Clinical trials suggests that the use of disulfiram significantly reduced cocaine use.

Back 281

The most effective treatment was a combination of ___ & ___ ___ ___.

Hint 281

Disulfiram; Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Front 282

Efficacy studies have found extremely high rates of noncompliance that can be improved by ___ ___ that release disulfiram continuously for up to 12 weeks, or supervised administration of the drug.

Back 282

Subdermal Implants

Front 283

Modafinil (Provigil), is a weak dopamine ___ ___, which acts to increase dopamine levels in the brain.

Back 283

Modafinil also is a glutamate ___ & a GABA ___.

Hint 283

Reuptake Inhibitor; Agonist; Antagonist

Front 284

The FDA has approved ___ only for the treatment of narcolepsy, work shift disorder & obstructive sleep apnea.

Back 284

Side-effects are typically not seen, but include blurred vision, dizziness, chills & fever, shortness of breath, rash, & mental confusion.

Hint 284

Modafinil

Front 285

Modafinil is a weak ___ with a low potential for dependency & abuse.

Back 285

Stimulant

Front 286

The most effective treatment was a combination of modafinil & cognitive behavior therapy.

Back 286

Cocaine Addiction

Front 287

Clinical trials suggests that the use of ___ significantly reduced craving & cocaine use.

Back 287

The mood enhancing effects of ___ are thought to be responsible for its therapeutic effects on cocaine dependency & abuse. It also serves to counteract the effects of cocaine withdrawal.

Hint 287

Modafinil