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335 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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DNA Structure |
linear (chain-like) 2 strands (opposite directions) uses 4 nucleotide bases (ATGC) A - T , G - C DNA has a negative charge |
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what bonds holds the two DNA strands together? |
hydrogen bonds A-T = 2 bonds G-C = 3 bonds |
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what is different about RNA? |
uses U instead of T RNA is single-stranded |
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strand separation |
strands are unzipped by enzyme helicase |
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complementary base pairing |
free floating ATGC bases find their complements on the open strands |
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polymerization |
enzyme DNA polymerase attaches new bases and re-zips new strands |
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RNA primer |
enzyme DNA polymerase attaches new bases and re-zips new strands |
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shotgun DNA sequencing |
break DNA into thousands of small fragments, then use a computer to assemble the fragments based on their overlapping parts |
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mutations |
human rate is about 1 in a billion nucleotides most mutations are neutral or bad good mutations are rare |
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SNP |
TTATG becomes ATATG |
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deletions |
TTATG becomes _ATG |
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insertions |
TTATG becomes TTGGATG |
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duplications |
TTATG becomes TTATGTTATG |
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inversions |
TTATG becomes GTATT |
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DNA repeat disorders |
repeated DNA sequences within a gene produce a nonfunctional protein |
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huntington's disease |
CAG repeat, >40 repeats is a problem |
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dyskinesia |
a body movement disorder also called a "chorea" |
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tardive dyskinesia |
involuntary movements of face and body due to long-term use of antipsychotic medicines |
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fragile-X syndrome |
CGG repeat, 5-40 is normal, >40 causes problems, can be as high as 200 |
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what are restrictions enzymes? |
bacterial enzymes that cut DNA at specific palindrome sequences |
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why do some bacteria have restriction enzymes? |
to destroy viral DNA that invades them |
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mitosis |
to produce diploid body cells. one replication produces two identical daughter cells |
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meiosis |
to produce haploid sperm or egg cells. one DNA replication, two cell divisions produce four haploid gametes |
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sperm formation |
all four cells from meiosis become sperm cells |
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egg formation |
only one cell from meiosis becomes a functional egg cell |
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why does egg formation work this way? |
need to make one giant, well-provisioned egg cell |
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cell division in animal cells |
contractile ring pinches cell in half from outside |
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what is the contractile ring made from? |
actin protein and non-muscle myosin II |
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cell division in plant cells |
divided from inside out using a cell plate in the middle of cell |
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recombination / crossing over |
when homologous chromosomes trade parts of chromosome arms |
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when does recombination occur? |
before first cell division of meiosis |
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why is recombination important? |
creates genetic variation among sperm and egg cells |
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translocation |
when chromosome parts break off and attach to different chromosomes. common in some types of cancers |
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what does radiation do to chromosomes? |
breaks chromosomes, may cause translocation |
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aneuploidy |
have wrong numbers of chromosomes. common with XY and chromosome 21 in humans |
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down syndrome |
trisomy 21 chance increases with age of parents |
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turner syndrome |
XO female usually causes sterility short stature and broad neck typically seen in these females |
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klinefelter's syndrome |
XXY male often with reduced fertility symptoms usually appear in puberty because they produce less testosterone than a XY male |
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trisomy X |
XXX females phenotypically normal and fertile |
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why don't females know they have trisomy X? |
X chromosome inactivation turns off extra X chromosomes |
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XYY male |
about 1/1000 male births phenotypically normal and fertile |
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why don't many males know they have XYY? |
only one Y needed to make maleness extra Y can't make "more" male |
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zygote |
fertilized egg |
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blending model of inheritance |
all traits of parents are blended in their offspring. males and females produce a liquid for reproduction and so it was reasoned that the liquids would blend to form an intermediate mixture in the offspring |
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what are the two problems with the blending inheritance model? |
all individuals will eventually look alike some traits seem to skip a generation |
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gregor mendel |
austrian monk, published results in 1865, trained as a physicist so had a quantitative background. began breeding peas to study patterns of inheritance. father of modern genetics |
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particulate model of inheritance |
medel's idea. parents pass discrete particles to their offspring that do not physically blend with other particles |
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diploid |
two of each chromosome/gene |
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homologous chromosomes |
a pair of the same chromosomes, one copy from each parent |
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haploid |
one of each chromosome. half the number you need |
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gametes |
name for haploid egg and sperm |
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why are gametes haploid? |
if not, chromosome number would be double every generation |
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gene |
sequence of DNA that codes for a specific protein |
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alleles |
different forms of the same gene |
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phenotype |
outward physical appearance of an organism |
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genotype |
a two-letter combination of alleles |
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allele pairings |
there are two alleles in diploid cells |
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homozygous |
two copies of same allele |
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heterzygous |
two different alleles |
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allele interactions |
alleles can affect each other |
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dominant |
one allele hides the phenotype of another |
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recessive |
name for the hidden allele |
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incomplete dominence |
phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between phenotype of two homozygous genotypes |
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co-dominance |
phenotype of heterozygote simultaneously shows both phenotypes |
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multiple alleles |
two or more alleles for a gene |
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epistasis |
one gene affects the phenotype of another gene. example, fur color in labrador retrievers |
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polygenic trait |
one phenotypic trait is controlled by many genes |
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how can you tell if a trait is polygenic |
the phenotypes form a natural distribution |
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principle of segregation of alleles |
sexually reproducing, diploid individuals have two copies for each gene and these alleles separate from each other such that each egg or sperm only gets one allele |
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principle of independent assortment |
alleles of one gene assort independently of the alleles at another gene |
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autosomes |
chromosomes not involved in sex determination |
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sex chromosomes |
chromosomes that are involved in sex determination |
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sex linked traits |
genes found on sex chromosomes show sex-specific patterns of inheritance |
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why are sex linked traits important? |
phenotypes more common in males than females females may be carriers |
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dosage compensation |
genetic mechanisms that equalize the expression of x-linked genes in males and females |
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why is dosage compensation necessary? |
different number of chromosomes in males and females |
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x chromosome inactivation |
one female x chromosome shuts off, leaving one working copy, like males |
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how do female 'calico' and 'tortoiseshell' cats get their mosaic fur colors? |
fur color is x linked different x chromosomes make black or orange colors different cells shut of different x chromosomes |
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phenotypic plasticity |
the ability of an organism with a given genotype to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment |
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examples of phenotypic plasticity |
masculature, height, skin color |
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asexual reproduction |
reproduction without sex. DNA comes from one individual |
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binary fusion |
cells split to make clones |
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budding |
clones grow on parent individuals |
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fragmentation |
pieces break off and grow into new individuals |
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parthenogenisis |
production of offspring from unfertilized eggs |
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advantages of asexual reproduction/ disadvantage of sexual |
don't have to compete for or find mates |
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disadvantages of asexual/ advantage of sexual |
very little genetic variation in asexual/ great genetic variation in sexual |
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sexual reproduction |
DNA comes from 2 individuals |
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simultaneous hermaphrodite |
has working male and female reproductive organs. do not usually self fertilize |
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why not self-fertilize? |
no genetic variation |
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sequential hermaphrodite |
start life as one sex and change to another |
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protandry |
born a male, change to female clownfish |
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protogyny |
born a female, change to male |
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genetic sex determination |
chromosomes determine sex of offspring |
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haplodiploidy |
females are diploid, males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid. found in bees, ants, and wasps |
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XO system |
female is homogametic (XX), male has no ex chromosome (O). found in grasshoppers, crickets, and cockroaches |
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ZW system |
female is heterogametic sex, male is homogametic. found in birds, butterflies, and komodo dragons |
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mosaic |
one egg, but different populations of cells express different genotypes |
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bilateral gynandromorph |
half body is genetically male, one half is genetically female |
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XY system |
female is homogametic (XX), male is heterogametic (XY). humans and drosophila fly |
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SRY gene |
y linked gene blocks genes on X. allows maleness to develop |
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androgen insensitivity syndrome |
mutation in androgen receptor. can't receive male hormone signals. XY male may develop as a phenotypic female |
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chimera |
body made from 2 different eggs that fused. different genotypes |
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environmental sex determination |
the environment determines sex of offspring |
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temperature |
sex determined by nest temperature crocodilians |
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environmental toxins |
farm chemicals can feminize males frogs |
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social environment |
some fish and frogs change sex if one sex is rare |
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where are sperm produced |
testicles |
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at puberty, the ___ releases ___ in pulses every 1-2 hours. this causes the anterior pituitary to increase the production of ___ that causes the testes to release testosterone and ___ that causes ___ to start sperm production |
hypothalamus GnRh LH FSH testes |
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LH |
causes testes to release testosterone |
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FSH |
causes testes to makes sperm and ovaries to make eggs |
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function of scrotum |
keep testes at best temperature for sperm production |
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best temp for sperm production |
in mammals, slightly below body temperature |
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bulbourethral gland |
make alkaline fluid to reduce acidity in urethra and vagina makes fluid to lubricate penis sometimes carries small amounts of sperm |
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prostate gland |
make alkaline fluid and activate sperm swimming makes 2 enzymes, one that clumps everything together before ejaculation, another to break it up after produce prostaglandins to move sperm towards egg |
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seminal vessicles |
produce fructose to feed swimming sperm makes prostaglandins |
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how long is the menstrual cycle |
about 28 days |
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days 1-11 hypothalamus releases ___ that causes the anterior pituitary to release ___ and ___. these hormones stimulate the ovaries to produce an ___, which produces the hormone ___. this hormone causes the ___ to grow and prepare for pregnancy |
gnRh LH FSH egg follicle estrogen endometrium |
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days 12-14 there is a surge of ___ and ___ that causes an egg to be released from the ovary into the ___ (where fertilization occurs). the follicular cells left behind form the ___, which produces large amounts of ___ and ___. progesterone and estrogen block the production of GnRh and ___ and progesterone blocks any uterine contractions |
FSH LH fallopian tube corpus luteum estrogen progesterone GnRh LH |
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days 15-26 without ___, the ___ breaks down, usually by days 26 in the cycle and estrogen and progesterone levels fall. this causes the blood-rich endometrial cells to break down and fall off, causing the bleeding associated with the menstrual cycle |
LH corpus luteum |
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days 27-28 without high levels of ___ or ___ to block it, ___ levels will rise again and start the next cycle |
estrogen progesterone GnRh |
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where are eggs produced? |
overies |
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what causes menstrual cramps? |
contractions of uterine muscles to remove unused endometrial cells |
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how many eggs does an ovary contain? |
at birth, 1 million at puberty, 200k-400k |
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birth control pills |
high levels of synthetic estrogen or progesterone fool body into thinking it is pregnant and prevent ovulation. to keep cycle moving, pills taken during last week have no hormone |
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what is the relationship between body fat and menstruation? |
should have at least 17% body fat in order to menstruate regularly |
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menopause |
after about age 50, ovaries become less active and estrogen levels fall |
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fertility drugs |
often large amounts of FSH, causing release of multiple eggs |
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endometrium |
lining of uterus where fertilized eggs will implant |
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endometriosis |
5-10% of women. endometrial cells grow outside uterus. usually painful |
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fertilization |
combining of a sperm and egg |
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external fertilization |
outside female's body |
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broadcast spawning |
release millions of gametes in water hope they find each other |
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internal fertilization |
occurs inside female's body |
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steps in fertilization |
sperm penetrates egg coat sperm and egg cell membranes fuse sperm and egg nuclei fuse egg implants into lining of the uterus |
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acrosome |
sac of enzymes at sperm tip digests through egg coat to get to egg cell membrane |
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fertilization membrane |
barrier that prevents a second sperm from entering |
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fraternal twins |
2+ different eggs fertilized at the same time |
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identical twins |
one fertilized egg splits into two genetically identical eggs |
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multiple births |
can be fraternal, identical, or a combination |
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humans typically have one baby at a time. why do some animals have multiple offspring at a time? |
in good conditions, more can survive |
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where does fertilization occur? |
Fallopian tubes |
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how long is the egg in the fallopian tube? |
12-24 hours |
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when are women most fertile? |
days 10-20 on the menstrual cycle |
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how many pregnancies end in miscarriage? |
about 1 in 6 |
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ectopic pregnancy |
fertilized egg implants somewhere other than uterus |
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preeclampsia |
high blood pressure during pregnancy |
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prolapse uterus |
pelvic floor muscles and ligaments stretch/weaken, uterus can slide down into vagine |
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episiotomy |
cutting tissue between vagina and anus to enlarge the opening for childbirth |
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HCG |
hormone made by cells around implanted embryo. causes corpus luteum to produce large amounts of estrogen and progesterone to stop the menstrual cycle |
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what is a pregnancy test? |
test to see if HCG is in urine |
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development |
the process by which a fertilized egg increases in size and complexity and becomes a reproductive adult |
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zygote |
fertilized egg |
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ovipary |
eggs laid outside the body |
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ovovivipary |
eggs hatch inside the body |
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vivipary |
no egg young develop inside, attached to female's uterus |
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placental mammal |
developing embryo is connected to female's body by a placenta and an umbilical cord |
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blastula |
hollow ball of cells, same size as zygote |
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how do identical twins form? |
during stage when cells divide into two different blastula |
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gastrula |
blastula folds in on itself |
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how do conjoined twins form? |
fertilized egg separates as identical twins, but not completely |
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ectoderm |
outer surface, nervous system, eye lens |
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endoderm |
lining of digestive tract, liver, pancreas, lungs |
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mesoderm |
muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys, circulatory system |
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embryonic stem cells |
cells that retain the ability to become all different cell types. come from blastopore region of blastula |
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embryo |
weeks 3-8 |
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by the end of the embryonic period |
all majors organs fingers and toes reproductive organs forming heartbeat around 5-6 weeks |
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how much weight should a woman gain during pregnancy? |
20-25 pounds may take about 100,000 calories to make a baby |
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what is a congenital birth defect? |
a defect that arises during development 'present at birth' |
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teratogen |
any substance that causes birth defects |
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C-section |
surgical removal of a baby from uterus, when vaginal birth isn't practical |
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genetic clock hypothesis |
life span is pre-programmed and under genetic control |
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telomere shortening |
chromosomes shorten every cell division. chromosomes get too short, cells die |
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Hayflick limit |
the maximum number of times a cell can divide before dying |
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stem cells make ____ enzyme that makes telomeres longer/ cells live forever |
telomerase |
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some cancer cells over-express ____, try to live forever |
tolemerase |
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free radical theory of aging |
aerobic respiration produces free oxygen radicals that damage DNA and proteins. over time, the damage accumulates and leads to aging |
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will antioxidants improve your lifespan? |
probably not may increase cancer risks |
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what effect does calorie restriction have on lifespan? |
mice live longer if they eat minimal food during life |
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evolutionary theory of aging |
mutations with late-life effects accumulate in populations because natural selection cannot eliminate them |
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why is the evolutionary theory of aging valid? |
mutation's effects occur after reproduction |
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example supporting evolutionary theory of aging |
huntington's disease, prostate cancer, heart disease |
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apoptosis |
programmed cell death. is what happens to normal cells that are damaged or not functioning. if the immune system doesn't get them, many cells will kill themselves |
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syndactyly |
apoptosis fails. fingers or toes remain joined together |
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normal control of cell division |
one cell sends a signaling molecule to another signaling molecule binds to receptor on target cell receptor sends proteins to nucleus DNA is copied. cell divides by mitosis |
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how do cells lose control of cell division? |
mutations in genes that control cell division |
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cancer can be caused solely by ______ within cells, a study of ovarian cancer has found. |
protein imbalances |
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age |
the largest risk factor for cancer |
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cyclins |
proteins that build up and when they reach a certain threshold, start mitosis |
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MPF mitosis-promoting factor |
protein that starts mitosis in eukaryotes |
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proto-oncogenes |
genes involved in regulating cell growth and differentiation |
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oncogenes |
mutated proto-oncogenes that cannot control cell division. cancer genes |
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tumor suppressor genes |
make proteins that stop cell division and kill cells |
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BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 |
DNA repair genes. some alleles greatly increase breast cancer and ovarian cancer risk |
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P53 |
regulatory protein. turns on apoptosis. many cancers linked to mutations in that gene |
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tumor |
abnormal growth of tissue. does not have to be cancerous |
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benign tumor |
harmless tumors that do not spread to other tissue. ex. warts, moles |
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uterine fibroids |
non-cancerous. most common benign tumor in women |
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cyst |
a closed sac with a membrane around it (fluid or air filled) |
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abscess |
a collection of pus (dead white blood cells) |
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cancer (malignant tumor) |
uncontrolled mitosis that can spread to other cells and tissues. many different kinds depending on which genes are not working properly and which body tissues are affected |
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carcinogen |
something that causes cancer |
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mutagen |
something that causes mutations |
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three characteristics of cancer |
mitosis out of control rely on glycolysis for ATP. all energy devoted to cell reproduction metastasis |
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metastasis |
when cancer cells spread to other parts of the body. rough cell surface. cells don't stick together. move through interstitial fluid to form new tumors |
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what percent of Americans will develop some form of cancer during their lifetime? |
about 40% |
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do men and women get cancer at the same rate? |
no, but depends on type of cancer |
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skin cancer |
most common type of cancer. 1/5 of americans will get skin cancer |
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actinic keratosis |
most common permalignant skin condition. scaly, crusty skin patches from UV damage |
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basal cell carcinoma |
slow growing and most common type of skin cancer |
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squamous cell carcinoma |
second most common type of skin cancer. more aggressive |
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malignant melonoma |
very aggressive cancer of melanocytes (skin pigment cells) |
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lung cancer |
second most common cancer worldwide leading cause is inhaled toxins |
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breast cancer |
most common cancer among women US women have highest rates in the world small, hard, bumpy-surfaced lump. often no pain associated with early stages |
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cyst |
squishy can move and change in size during menstrual cycle |
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fibroadenoma |
round with a smooth surface (hard or soft) can move often called a 'breast mouse' |
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pseudolump |
many causes, symptoms get checked to be sure |
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some factors that might increase the risk of breast cancer |
genetics (family history) cigarette smoke (secondhand too) alcohol abuse obesity abnormal circadian rhythm |
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some factors that might reduce the risk of breast cancer |
lower age of first childbirth <24 years old having more children (-7% risk for each child) breastfeeding (4% lower risk per breastfeeding year) |
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mastectomy |
removal of one or both breasts |
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oophorectomy |
removal of ovaries |
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hysterectomy |
removal of all or part of uterus |
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testicular cancer |
not common very high cure rate if caught early |
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orchidectomy |
treatment to remove a testiclep |
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prostate cancer |
most common cancer among males nearly all men will develop it if they live long enough |
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lymphoma |
a type of cancer that originates in lymphocytes (white blood cells) and often found in lymph nodes |
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leukimia |
cancer of the blood cells (usually white blood cells) or bone marrow. overproduction of cells in the marrow leads to overcrowding and marrow cannot produce enough normal cells |
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cancer prevention |
healthy lifestyle early detection know your genetic risks |
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immune system |
macrophages and natural killer cells can recognize cancer cells and destroy them |
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vaccination |
use antigens that are specific to the cancer cells |
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alpha lactalbumin |
breast cancer vaccine |
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prostatic acid phosphetase |
prostate cancer vaccine |
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surgery |
removes cancer cells, but ineffective if metastasis has occurred |
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radiation |
stops mitosis, but damages other cells too. ineffective if metastasis has occurred |
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chemotherapy |
relies on a wide range of drugs that find and destroy cancer cells or prevent the formation of supporting tissue (capillaries), which should help kill cancer cells |
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antigens |
anything that stimulates an immune response |
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lymphatic system |
it is a separate circulatory system that transports interstitial fluid from cells back to the blood's circulatory system |
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what circulates interstitial fluid? |
body movements |
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what is the function of the lymphatic system? |
filters antigens from interstitial fluid |
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where are white blood cells formed? |
bone marrow |
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where do white blood cells mature? |
thymus gland and bone marrow |
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spleen |
filters out old red blood cells, produces some white blood cells, and removes pathogens and antigens your body has already attacked and killed |
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peyer's patches |
clusters of lymphatic tissue around small intestine to monitor digestive system |
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what are lymph nodes? |
filter interstitial fluid swollen glands mean you are fighting an infection |
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non-specific defenses |
attack any antigen not recognized as 'self' |
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first non-specific defense again infection and disease |
external defenses |
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external defenses |
skin, exoskeleton, other body covering tears, sweat, and saliva have enzyme lsyozyme that kills bacteria mucus washes pathogens away from body\ stomach acids can kill many pathogens |
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second non-specific defense against infection and disease |
generalized attack cells |
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natural killer cells |
WBCs that attack bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells |
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perforins |
proteins that make holes in cell membrane |
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granzymes |
proteins that kill cancerous or infected cells by causing apoptosis |
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cytokines |
proteins that help control the immune response. many cells have these |
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interferon |
a cytokine made by infected cells to warn other cells of infection |
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third non-specific defense against infection and disease |
hormonal response |
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inflammation |
redness, swelling, heat |
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histamines |
produced by mast cells and it makes capillaries dilate and become leaky causing redness and swelling. antihistamines block this action |
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prostaglandins |
hormone produced by cells near affected area. induces fever and inflammation. aspirin blocks it |
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why do you respond to infection or injury with inflammation? |
traps pathogens at site of injury immobilize injured joints |
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why do we get fever? |
immune system better at higher temperature pathogens don't like high temperatures |
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adaptive immune response (specific defenses are good, but slow) |
cells have 'memory', but first response takes several weeks |
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T Cells |
control the immune response tell B Cells when to divide |
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B Cells |
make antibodies and remember pathogens |
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antibodies |
proteins that stick to antigens and signal other WBCs to attack that antigen |
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plasma cells |
'antibody factories' produce millions of antibodies, stops current infection |
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memory cells |
remain dormant stops future infection of same pathogen |
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what are immunodeficiency diseases? |
the immune system itself doesn't work or is attacked |
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how does HIV/AIDS virus work? |
uses cell receptor to invade and destroy T Cells |
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what happens if you don't have enough T Cells? |
no plasma cells no memory cells body can't fight any infection people suffer from infections the rest of us fight everyday |
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Mhc1 proteins |
cell surface proteins that display protein fragments from INSIDE a cell to white bloods cells outside the cell. cells with normal proteins are ignored, cells with foreign proteins are destroyed |
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Mhc2 proteins |
cell surface proteins that display protein fragments from OUTSIDE a cell to white blood cells outside the cell. cells with normal proteins are ignored, cells with foreign proteins are destroyed |
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what are autoimmune disorders? |
when your own immune system attacks your own cells |
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multiple scelerosis |
IS attacks mylein sheath |
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type 1 diabetes |
IS attacks insulin-producing cells in pancreas |
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grave's disease |
IS attacks thyroid gland |
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how do vaccines work? |
dead pathogens or antigens are injected into the body they don't cause disease they do stimulate the production of memory cells |
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live vaccine |
the pathogen injected into your body is alive, but weakened sometimes make you you little sick |
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what is passive immunity? |
shot term immunity using antibodies produced outside body |
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snake-bite antivenin |
snake venom is collected and injected into horses or rabbits, which then produce antibodies in response to the venom. antibodies are collected, concentrated, and injected into victim |
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maternal antibodies |
mothers transfer some antibodies across the placenta to the developing fetus. this gives them protection against some diseases the mother has already had; breastfeeding does this too |
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gamma globulin |
if traveling out of the country, you may receive antibodies prepared from the blood of other humans from that geographic area. this will give you short-term protection against local diseases |
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allergic reaction |
too many antibodies stimulates histamine release and cause drop in blood pressure |
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hives |
also called orticaria. allergic reaction in the skin caused by histamine release. causes small, itchy, red bumps on skin. usually lasts less than 24 hours |
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anaphylactic shock |
a whole body allergic reaction can cause fetal drop in blood pressure |
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what do you give someone in anaphylactic shock? |
epinephrine or adrenaline |
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the flu is an infection caused by the ______, respiratory virus. the common cold is caused by an ______ or ______ with many different kinds that can infect humans. there is no ______ for your cold because we don't know which one you will get. because we know which ______ is common each flu season, we create a ______ to help stop the spread of that virrus |
influenza virus adenovirus coronavirus vaccine influenza virus vaccine |
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pathogen |
an infectious disease-causing organism |
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vector |
any organism that transmits a pathogen to another organismi |
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infection |
pathogen invades a cell or multi-cell organism |
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epidemic |
pathogen spreads through a population |
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pandemic |
pathogen spreads through many popuations |
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septicemia |
blood-poisoning infection in the blood |
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acute |
sudden onset of a condition ex. broken bone |
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chronic |
persistent condition ex. arthritis |
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why don't pathogens kill us all? |
immune system can kill most of them they kill each other |
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where do antibiotics come from? |
bacteria and fungi |
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prudent parasites |
parasites should not kill hosts or can't spread to new hosts |
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bacterial reproduction |
antibiotics kill bacteria most work by blocking cell division |
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binary fusion |
asexual produces 2 clones can be very fast |
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conjugation |
direct exchange of DNA using conjugation tube |
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endospores |
bacterial spore that can survive harsh conditions |
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transformation |
bacteria take DNA right from environment |
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antibiotic resistance |
bacteria either evolve by mutation or acquire from another bacterium the ability to detoxify a particular antibiotic. happens in places where bacteria are exposed to antibiotics like hospitals |
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rhizobium |
symbiosis between bacteria and plant roots that helps plants get nitrogen out of the soil. associated with legumes- alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, mesquite, carob, and peanuts |
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lyme disease |
most common disease spread by ticks in the northern hemisphere. deer tick vectorp |
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probiotics |
bacteria and fungi essential for good health |
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viroid |
strands of RNA no protein coat, no protein coding genes pathogens of plants and crop species |
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prions |
misfolded proteins that make other proteins misfold accumulate in brain tissue hard to treat because they are protein, like youp |
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protists |
single-celled eukaryotes placed in their own kingdom |
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red tide |
a dinoflagellate population explosion. they release neurotoxins into the waterw |
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hat are algae? |
colonial protists, not plants |
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protists that evolved into animals |
choanoflagellates |
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protists that evolved into plants |
green algae |
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protists that evolved into fungi |
nucleariid a type of ameoba |
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fungi |
diseases are called mycoses fungicides kill fungi |
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what role do fungi play in ecosystems? |
they are decomposers |
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fungal cell walls are made from protein |
chitin |
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what are hyphae |
a chain of connected cells |
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what is a mycelium |
interwoven hyphae that forms body of fungus |
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what type of nutrition do fungi have? |
absorptive nutrition |
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absorptive nutrition |
fungal cells secrete powerful exoenzymes that digest food outside the body and fungal cells absorb nutrients directly from the environment |
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saprobic fungi |
decomposes dead organisms |
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parasitic fungi |
feed on living organisms |
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haustoria |
specialized parasitic hyphae that invade living cells and secrete digestive enzymes |
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thrush |
if antibiotics kill the good bacteria, fungi called candida can take over the free space and cause a fungal infection in the mouth or yeast infection in the vagina |
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mold |
rapidly growing asexually reproducing fungus |
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yeast |
unicellular fungi that live in damp places and can reproduce by budding |
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lichen |
a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a cyanobacterial cell or a green algae |
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mycorrihizae |
a symbiotic relationship between plant roots and fungi that helps plants absorb nutrients from soil, particularly phosphorus |
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viruses |
much smaller than bacteria DNA or RNA in a protein coat cannot reproduce alone, must have a host cell |
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conjunctivities |
inflammation of the tissue covering the white part of the eye. often called pink eye |
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hepatitis |
inflammation of the liver. can be caused by viruses, autoimmune or metabolic diseases, or alcohol abuse. acetaminophen is the leading cause of drug-induced liver failure in the US |
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jaundice |
yellow discoloration of skin, mucous membranes, or inside the eyelid caused by liver problems |
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MERS |
middle eastern respiratory syndrome. respiratory infection that is fairly rare outside of hospitals, but can have a 40% fatality rate. worse in individuals with an already weakened immune system |
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the ____ is transmitted by daytime-active ____ mosquitos. they have ____ legs and are found in most of the same regions where humans live. to find a host, mosquitos can home in on ____, ____, ____, or ____, which is contained in human breath or sweat. |
zika virus aedes striped ammonia CO2 lactic acid octenol |
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this virus may be ____ and growing evidence links infection in pregnant women to birth defects, namely ____, an underdeveloped brain resulting in a smaller than average head circumference. symptoms of infection in an adult include: skin rash, fatigue, chills, headache, muscle aches, and conjunctivitis |
sexually transmitted microcephaly |
