Anthro Bio Midterm

Front 1

____are members of the
evolutionary lineage that includes
ourselves, modern Homo sapiens

Back 1

Hominins

Front 2

Habitually walking bipedally (on two feet)
is a critical feature of ____.

Back 2

Hominins

Front 3

Humans are members of the Order___.

Back 3

Primates

Front 4

Primates, the group of mammals that
includes___.

Back 4

apes, monkeys, tarsiers, lemurs and lorises.

Front 5

A change in the genetic structure of a
population from one generation to the next.

Back 5

Evolution

Front 6

An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral
response of organisms or populations to the
environment

Back 6

Adaptation

Front 7

Adaptations result from ___.

Back 7

evolutionary change

Front 8

Small genetic changes that occur within
a species

Back 8

Microevolution

Front 9

Changes that occur only after many
generations, such as the appearance
of a new species (speciation).

Back 9

Macroevolution

Front 10

the appearance
of a new species

Back 10

Speciation

Front 11

Strategies humans use to adapt to their
environment:

Back 11

technologies
subsistence
• religion
• marriage and
patterns
• housing types
• clothing
• family
• values
• gender roles

Front 12

General cultural orientation or perspective
of the external environment shared by
members of a society and in particular
ways that distinguish that culture from all
others.

Back 12

Worldview

Front 13

Over time, culture and biology interacted
in such a way that humans are said to be
the result of ___

Back 13

biocultural evolution

Front 14

The human predisposition to assimilate
culture and function within it is profoundly
influenced by ____

Back 14

biological factors

Front 15

Anything organisms do that involves
action in response to internal or external
stimuli.

Back 15

Behavior

Front 16

The response of an individual, group, or
species to its environment

Back 16

Behavior

Front 17

Responses may or may not be deliberate,
and aren’t necessarily the result of
conscious decision making.

Back 17

Behavior

Front 18

The capacity or inclination to do
something.

Back 18

Predisposition

Front 19

An organism’s capacity for behavioral or
anatomical modification is related to the
presence of _____.

Back 19

preexisting traits

Front 20

The mutual, interactive evolution of
human biology and culture.

Back 20

Biocultural Evolution

Front 21

The concept that biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture
further influences the direction of
biological evolution

Back 21

Biocultural Evolution

Front 22

Anthropology subields

Back 22

Cultural Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Linguistic anthropology
• Physical (or Biological) Anthropology

Front 23

A powerful means of explaining variation
in human adaptations

Back 23

Anthropology

Front 24

Study of the global patterns of belief and
behavior found in modern and historical
cultures

Back 24

Cultural Anthropology

Front 25

Detailed descriptive studies of human
societies.

Back 25

Ethnographies

Front 26

Form the basis for comparative studies of
numerous cultures

Back 26

Ethnographies

Front 27

Detailed descriptive studies of human
societies.

Back 27

Ethnographies

Front 28

Ethnographic techniques are applied to
the study of diverse subcultures and their
interactions with one another in
contemporary areas

Back 28

urban anthropology

Front 29

The practical application of
anthropological and archaeological
theories and techniques

Back 29

Applied Anthropology

Front 30

An applied subfield of cultural
anthropology that explores the
relationship between various cultural
attributes and health and disease.

Back 30

Medical Anthropology

Front 31

Study of earlier cultures and lifeways
through scientific recovery, analysis, and
interpretation of material remains of past
societies and artifacts

Back 31

Archaeology

Front 32

an applied approach to evaluating,
excavating, and conserving cultural
properties threatened by development.

Back 32

Cultural Resource Management

Front 33

Study of human speech and language.

Back 33

Linguistic Anthropology

Front 34

The use of language is a unique human
characteristic

Back 34

Linguists trace historical ties between languages
and groups of languages by examining
similarities between contemporary languages
• Insights into the process of language acquisition
in infants have implications for the development
of language skills in human evolution

Front 35

Study of human biology within the
framework of evolution.

Back 35

Physical Anthropology

Front 36

Physical Anthropology Subfields:

Back 36

Paleoanthropology, Anthropometry, Osteology, Paleopathology, Forensic Anthropology, Paleoanthropology

Front 37

the study of
human evolution, as evidenced in the
fossil record

Back 37

Paleoanthropology

Front 38

Measurement of human body
• Identifying human variation due to
possible adaptive significance
• Identify genetic and other evolutionary
factors that produced variation

Back 38

Anthropometry

Front 39

The study of the human skeleton

Back 39

Osteology

Front 40

the study of skeletal
remains from archaeological sites

Back 40

Bioarchaeology

Front 41

The study of disease and trauma in
archaeologically-derived skeletons

Back 41

Paleopathology

Front 42

Investigates the prevalence of trauma,
certain infectious diseases, nutritional
deficiencies, and conditions that may
leave evidence in bone

Back 42

Paleopathology

Front 43

Application of anthropological techniques
to legal issues

Back 43

Forensic Anthropology

Front 44

The interdisciplinary approach to the
study of earlier hominids, their
chronology, physical structure,
archaeological remains, habitats, etc.

Back 44

Paleoanthropology

Front 45

____examine how groups
respond physiologically
to environmentally
induced stress.

Back 45

Population studies

Front 46

Population studies, Body Measurements, Genetics, DNA

Back 46

Studies of Human Variation

Front 47

Double-stranded molecule that contains
the genetic code, a set of instructions for
producing bodily structures and functions.

Back 47

DNA

Front 48

main component of
chromosomes.

Back 48

DNA

Front 49

The study of the living nonhuman
primates

Back 49

Primatology

Front 50

_____ and _____are frequently used to
identify genes in
humans and non
human primates

Back 50

Cloning and
sequencing methods

Front 51

A set of relationships in which all
components fall along a single integrated
spectrum.

Back 51

Continuum

Front 52

All life reflects a single ___ ___.

Back 52

biological
continuum

Front 53

a process of explaining natural
phenomena by means of observation,
developing explanations, or hypotheses

Back 53

Science

Front 54

• Science is a process of explaining natural
phenomena by means of observation,
developing explanations, or hypotheses
• Empirical approach to gaining
information
• Data (information) is collected that can
be studied and analyzed quantitatively

Back 54

Scientific Method

Front 55

A broad statement of scientific
relationships or underlying principles that
has been substantially verified through
the testing of hypotheses

Back 55

Theory

Front 56

“tested explanations of facts”

Back 56

Theory

Front 57

A provisional explanation of a
phenomenon.

Back 57

Hypotheses

Front 58

_____ require verification or
falsification through testing.

Back 58

Hypotheses

Front 59

An approach to research whereby a
question is asked, a hypothesis (or
provisional explanation) is stated, and that
hypothesis is tested by collecting and
analyzing data.

Back 59

The Scientific Method

Front 60

• State the research problem.
• Develop a hypothesis.
• Test the hypothesis through data
collection and analysis.
• If the hypothesis is verified, it becomes a
theory.

Back 60

The Scientific Method

Front 61

Facts from which conclusions can be
drawn; scientific information.

Back 61

Data

Front 62

Pertaining to measurements of quantity
and including such properties as size,
number, and capacity.

Back 62

Quantitative

Front 63

When data are quantified, they’re _____________________.

Back 63

expressed numerically and can be tested
statistically

Front 64

The precise repetition of an experiment or
expansion of observed data to provide
verification

Back 64

Scientific Testing

Front 65

The procedure by which hypotheses and
theories are verified, modified, or
discarded.

Back 65

Scientific Testing

Front 66

A broad perspective that helps us understand
the diversity of the human experience within the
context of biological and behavioral continuity
with other species

Back 66

Anthropological Perspective

Front 67

By learning about cultures other than our own,
we can avoid an ethnocentric view of other
cultures.

Back 67

Anthropological Perspective

Front 68

By recognizing that we have similarities with
other animals, we may recognize that they have
a place in nature just as we do.

Back 68

Anthropological Perspective

Front 69

Viewing other cultures from the inherently
biased perspective of one’s own culture.

Back 69

Ethnocentric

Front 70

_____ often results in other
cultures being seen as inferior to one’s
own.

Back 70

Ethnocentrism

Front 71

viewing entities
as they relate to something else

Back 71

Relativistic

Front 72

______ is the view that cultures
have merits within their own historical and
environmental contexts and that they
shouldn’t be judged through comparison
with one’s own culture.

Back 72

Cultural relativism

Front 73

Why the Anthropological
Perspective Matters

Back 73

Anthropology offers a wider appreciation of the
human experience, in order to understand humans
beings and how our species came to be.

Front 74

Why the Anthropological
Perspective Matters

Back 74

How humans differ from and are similar to other
animals, including nonhuman primates
• Understand the limits and potentials of
humankind
• Allows us to understand other people’s concerns
and view our own culture from a broader
perspective

Front 75

_____ are members of the
evolutionary lineage that includes
ourselves, modern Homo sapiens

Back 75

Hominins

Front 76

____ is learned.

Back 76

Culture

Front 77

Anthropologists who conduct
excavations in order to recover artifacts
are _____

Back 77

archaeologists

Front 78

Physical anthropologists developed
techniques for measuring the human
body. These type of measurements are
called_____

Back 78

anthropometrics

Front 79

____ is the most fundamental of all
biological processes, but one of the most
misunderstood

Back 79

Evolution

Front 80

____ evolved from a species that
lived some 6-8 million years ago (mya),
not monkeys or chimpanzees

Back 80

Humans

Front 81

Evolution takes time; hence, the
appearance of a new species is rarely
witnessed _____ occur

Back 81

microevolutionary changes

Front 82

_____ Is a Theory

Back 82

Evolution

Front 83

• The theory has been tested and subjected
to verification through accumulated
evidence (and has not been disproved)
• The theory of evolution has been
supported by a mounting body of genetic
evidence.
• The theory has stood the test of time.
• The theory continues to grow.

Back 83

Evolution Is a Theory

Front 84

• Evolutionary principles were developed in
western Europe, made possible by
scientific thinking dating to the 16c.
• Western science, however, borrowed
ideas from Arab, Indian, and Chinese
cultures where notions of biological
evolution had already developed.
• It was the theory that was new.

Back 84

A Brief History of
Evolutionary Thought

Front 85

The most critical mechanism of
evolutionary change, first explained by
Charles Darwin

Back 85

Natural Selection

Front 86

Natural Selection
• The most critical mechanism of
evolutionary change, first explained by
Charles Darwin
• Same conclusions were independently
reached by _________

Back 86

Alfred Russel Wallace

Front 87

A predominant feature of European
worldview was _______

Back 87

that all forms of
nature never changed

Front 88

genetic change or changes in the
frequencies of certain traits in populations
due to differential reproductive success
between individuals

Back 88

Natural selection in the theory of evolution

Front 89

The notion that species, once created,
can never change

Back 89

Fixity of Species

Front 90

an idea diametrically opposed to theories
of biological evolution.

Back 90

Fixity of Species

Front 91

To challenge the idea was to challenge
the perfection of God’s design.

Back 91

Fixity of Species

Front 92

______ came with the discovery of the New
World, introducing new ideas and
challenging fundamental views about the
planet.

Back 92

The Scientific Revolution

Front 93

Exposure to new plants and animals
increased awareness of biological
diversity.

Back 93

The Scientific Revolution

Front 94

• Aristotle taught that the sun and planets
existed in a series of concentric spheres
that revolved around the sun.
• Copernicus challenged the idea that the
earth was the center of the universe.
• Galileo’s work supported the idea that
the universe was a place of motion.

Back 94

Challenges to traditional
beliefs

Front 95

____ taught that the sun and planets
existed in a series of concentric spheres
that revolved around the sun.

Back 95

Aristotle

Front 96

_____ challenged the idea that the
earth was the center of the universe

Back 96

Copernicus

Front 97

____ work supported the idea that
the universe was a place of motion.

Back 97

Galileo

Front 98

This seventeenth-century
map shows the earth at
the center of the solar
system.
• Around it are seven
concentric circles
depicting the orbits of the
moon, sun, and the five
planets that were known
at the time.

Back 98

Aristotle’s View

Front 99

John Ray, Carolus Linnaeus, Erasmus Darwin, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,

Back 99

Precursors to the Theory of
Evolution

Front 100

recognized that groups of plants and
animals could be differentiated from other
groups by their ability to mate with one another
and produce offspring.
• He placed such groups of reproductively
isolated organisms into a single category, which
he called the species.

Back 100

John Ray

Front 101

developed the concept of species

Back 101

John Ray

Front 102

developed a method of classifying plants and
animals.

Back 102

Carolus Linnaeus

Front 103

In Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, he
standardized Ray’s use of genus and species
terminology and established the system of
binomial nomenclature.
• He added two more categories: class and
order.

Back 103

Carolus Linnaeus

Front 104

Linnaeus’ four-level system became the basis
for _____

Back 104

taxonomy

Front 105

In a poem, expressed the view that life
had originated in the seas and all species
descended from a common ancestor.

Back 105

Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin’s
grandfather

Front 106

developed a
theory to explain the evolutionary
process, known as the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.

Back 106

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Front 107

the leaves from the lower branches of a
tree, the animal tries to reach leaves on
upper branches.
• The neck becomes slightly longer.
• The longer neck is passed on to offspring.

Back 107

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck developed a
theory to explain the evolutionary
process, known as the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.

Front 108

An opponent to Lamarck,
_____ explained the
fossil record as the result
of a succession of
catastrophes followed by
new creation events.

Back 108

Cuvier

Front 109

The view that the earth’s
geological landscape is
the result of violent
cataclysmic events.

Back 109

Catastrophism

Front 110

author of an essay
that inspired both Charles Darwin and
Alfred Wallace in their separate
discoveries of natural selection.

Back 110

Thomas Malthus

Front 111

Was arguing for limits of human
population growth, not concerned with
how species change.
• The limits for populations to increase is
controlled by availability of resources.
• The latter was extended to all organisms by Darwin and Wallace.

Back 111

Thomas Malthus

Front 112

• A lawyer, geologist, and,
for Charles Darwin’s
friend and mentor.
• Before meeting Darwin in
1836, Lyell had earned
acceptance in Europe’s
most prestigious
scientific circles, thanks
to his praised Principles
of Geology, published
during the years 1830–1833.

Back 112

Charlies Lyell

Front 113

The theory that the earth’s features are the
result of long-term natural processes (i.e. wind,
water erosion, local flooding, frost,
decomposition, volcanoes, earthquakes, and
glacial movements) that continue to operate in
the present as they did in the past.

Back 113

Uniformitarianism

Front 114

Proposed by James Hutton, elaborated on by
Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and
contributed strongly to the concept of immense
geological time.

Back 114

Uniformitarianism

Front 115

When her father died,
___ began
collecting and selling
marine fossils to
support her family.
• She discovered the
first fossilized
Pleiosaurus (oceandwelling
reptile) and
became known as
one of the world’s
leading “fossilists.”

Back 115

Mary Anning

Front 116

Ideas were formed while
serving as a naturalist on
the 5-year voyage of the
HMS Beagle

Back 116

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Front 117

Darwin saw the
importance of biological
variation within a
species.

Back 117

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Front 118

Recognized that sexual
reproduction increased
variation, but did not yet
know why.

Back 118

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Front 119

The idea that in each generation more
offspring are born than survive to
adulthood, coupled with the notions of
competition for resources and biological
diversity led to the theory of evolution

Back 119

The Struggle for Existence
Darwin

Front 120

He wrote, “ It at once struck me that under
these circumstances favourable variations
would tend to be preserved, and
unfavourable ones to be destroyed.”

Back 120

Darwin

Front 121

Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches
------- finch
• Main food: seeds
• Beak: heavy

Back 121

Ground finch

Front 122

Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches
____ finch
• Main food: leaves,
buds, blossoms, fruits
• Beak: thick, short

Back 122

Tree finch

Front 123

Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches
___ finch
• Main food: insects
• Beak: stout, straight

Back 123

woodpecker finch

Front 124

Beak Variation in Darwin’s
Galápagos Finches
____finch
• Main food: insects
• Beak: slender

Back 124

warbler finch

Front 125

• All domestic dogs share a common ancestor,
the wolf. The extreme variation exhibited by dog
breeds today has been achieved in a relatively
short time through _____

Back 125

artificial selection

Front 126

Suggested species
descended from other
species and new species
were influenced by
environmental factors

Back 126

Alfred Russell Wallace
(1823-1913)

Front 127

Presented joint paper,
coauthored with Darwin,
on evolution and natural
selection to the Linnean
Society of London

Back 127

Alfred Russell Wallace
(1823-1913)

Front 128

____________,
are “the key” to understanding
evolution

Back 128

Processes of Natural Selection

Front 129

1. All species are capable of producing offspring
at a faster rate than food supplies increase.

Back 129

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 130

2. There is biological variation within all species.

Back 130

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 131

3. Since in each generation, more individuals are
produced than can survive, and because of
limited resources, there is competition among
individuals. IMPORTANT NOTE: competition
does not imply “fighting”

Back 131

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 132

4. Individuals possessing favorable
variations or traits (i.e. speed, resistance
to disease, protective coloration) have
an advantage over those who do not. In
other words, have greater fitness
because favorable traits increase the
likelihood of survival and reproduction

Back 132

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 133

5. The environmental context determines
whether or not a trait is beneficial.
Hence, favorable traits become most
advantageous are the results of a natural
process.

Back 133

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 134

6. Traits are inherited and passed on to the
next generation. Individuals who produce
more offspring are said to have a greater
reproductive success, or fitness.

Back 134

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 135

7. Variations accumulate over long periods
of time, so later generations may be
distinct from ancestral ones

Back 135

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 136

8. As populations respond to pressures
over time, they may become distinct
species, descended from a common
ancestor.

Back 136

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 137

Over long periods of geological time,
successful variations accumulate in a
population

Back 137

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 138

• Later generations may be distinct from
ancestral ones, or a new species can
appear.

Back 138

Natural Selection, the basic
processes - 8

Front 139

_______ (distance, natural
barriers such as oceans) contributes to
the formation of new species as
individuals begin to adapt to different
environments.

Back 139

Geographical isolation Natural Selection, the basic
processes

Front 140

________
(differential
ecological circumstances) cause distinct
species to develop. See, for example, the
13 species of Galápagos finches
presumably all descended from a
common South American ancestor.

Back 140

Selective pressures

Natural Selection, the basic
processes

Front 141

1. A trait must be inherited if natural selection is
to act on it.
2. Natural selection can’t occur without
population variation in inherited
characteristics.
3. Fitness is a relative measure that changes as
the environment changes.
4. Natural selection can only act on traits that
affect reproduction

Back 141

Evolutionary Change
Through Natural Selection

Front 142

A trait must be____if natural selection is
to act on it.

Back 142

inherited

Front 143

Natural selection can’t occur without
population variation in ____

Back 143

inherited
characteristics

Front 144

_____ is a relative measure that changes as
the environment changes

Back 144

Fitness

Front 145

Natural selection can only act on traits that
affect _____

Back 145

reproduction

Front 146

Pertaining to natural selection, a measure
of relative reproductive success of
individuals

Back 146

Fitness

Front 147

____ can be measured by an
individual’s genetic contribution to the
next generation compared to that of other
individuals.

Back 147

Fitness

Front 148

An animal that gives birth to more young
passes its genes on a faster rate than one
that bears few offspring.
• An important element, however, is also
the number of young raised successfully
to the point where they reproduce, or _________

Back 148

differential net reproductive success

Front 149

• With the discovery of the structure of DNA
came the understanding of the entire
genetic makeup of an individual or
species.
• Human and chimpanzee genomes were
sequenced in 2003 and 2005,
respectively.

Back 149

Genome

Front 150

When expressions of a phenomenon
continuously grade into one another so that
there are no discrete categories, they exist on a
continuum.
• Color is one such phenomenon, and life-forms
are another.
• Most people hold to belief systems that do not
emphasize this or offer scientific explanations.

Back 150

Biological Continuity

Front 151

• Religion and science concern different aspects
of the human experience, and they are not
inherently mutually exclusive categories.

Back 151

Religion vs. Science

Front 152

Belief in God does not exclude the possibility of
biological evolution; acknowledgement of
evolutionary processes doesn’t preclude the
existence of God.

Back 152

Religion vs. Science

Front 153

Evolutionary theories are not rejected by all
religions or by most forms of Christianity.

Back 153

Religion vs. Science

Front 154

• Conservative Christians (“Creationists”) seeking
a revival of “traditional values” and banning any
theory that does not support the biblical version
of the creation of humankind.

Back 154

Christian Fundamentalists

Front 155

• Adherents to a movement in American
Protestantism that began in the early twentieth
century.
• This group holds that the teachings of the Bible
are infallible and are to be taken literally.

Back 155

Christian Fundamentalists

Front 156

• Argue that creation science and intelligent
design (ID) is as much a scientific endeavor as
is evolution, and suggest scientific evidence to
support creationist views
• ID is not science, however

Back 156

Creation Science, Intelligent
Design

Front 157

Creationists argue their view is absolute and
fallible, which is counter to science which seeks
testable hypotheses

Back 157

Creation Science, Intelligent
Design

Front 158

One of the greatest controversies
regarding education in the United States
and other parts of the world is the teaching of evolution.

Back 158

Why Evolution Matters

Front 159

Example: HINI Flu viruses are the result of viruses
“evolving” or changing in form.
• Medical researchers try to predict which of
several strains will pose the most serious threat
and try to develop a vaccine that targets that
specific “evolving” strain. If future physicians and researchers don’t
understand evolution, there is little hope they
can forestall potential medical crises as the
pace of change in pathogens exceeds that of
the antibiotics designed to defeat them.

Back 159

Why Evolution Matters

Front 160

Contemporary Health Challenges
• The inevitable outcome of our more aggressive
methods to fight microbes (disease causing
micro-organisms such as bacteria and viruses)
will lead to modified micro-organisms that have
evolved to resist therapies such as antibiotics.
More use of antibiotics to treat bacterial
infections weed out vulnerable microbes, but
leave less vulnerable to reproduce. Less
vulnerable cause more serious forms of disease
than the organisms that were eliminated

Back 160

Why Evolution Matters

Front 161

To understand the complexities of
evolution one must be well versed in
____ and ______

Back 161

genetics and biology.

Front 162

Genetic evidence supports evolution T or F

Back 162

True

Front 163

Darwin realized that variation among
_________________ was how selection
occurred, ultimately causing change in
species.

Back 163

individuals

Front 164

Natural selection acts on existing
_________________ within a species.

Back 164

variation

Front 165

The study of gene structure and action,
and the patterns of inheritance of traits
from parent to offspring

Back 165

Genetics

Front 166

_______are the foundation
for evolutionary change.

Back 166

Genetic mechanisms

Front 167

____are the basic units of life in all living
organisms.

Back 167

Cells

Front 168

In some forms, such as ____, a single cell
constitutes the entire organism.

Back 168

bacteria

Front 169

An adult human is made up of perhaps as many
as ______, all functioning in complex
ways that promote the survival of the individual

Back 169

1,000 billion cells

Front 170

The study of gene structure and action,
and the patterns of inheritance of traits
from parent to offspring

Back 170

Genetics

Front 171

_______are the foundation
for evolutionary change.

Back 171

Genetic mechanisms

Front 172

____are the basic units of life in all living
organisms.

Back 172

Cells

Front 173

In some forms, such as ____, a single cell
constitutes the entire organism.

Back 173

bacteria

Front 174

An adult human is made up of perhaps as many
as ______, all functioning in complex
ways that promote the survival of the individual

Back 174

1,000 billion cells

Front 175

Life on earth can be traced back 3.7
billion years to single celled organisms,
such as____

Back 175

bacteria and blue-green algae

Front 176

structurally complex
cells, appeared 1.2 billion years ago.

Back 176

Eukaryotic cells

Front 177

A three-dimensional structure
composed of carbohydrates, lipids
(fats), nucleic acids, and proteins

Back 177

Eukaryotic cells

Front 178

Eukaryotic cells are A three-dimensional structure
composed of __, ___,___,___

Back 178

carbohydrates, lipids
(fats), nucleic acids, and proteins

Front 179

A discrete unit surrounded by a thin
membrane, called the nuclear membrane.

Back 179

Cell Nucleus

Front 180

Contains two kinds of nucleic acids,
molecules that contain genetic information
that controls the cell’s function.

Back 180

Cell Nucleus

Front 181

Structures made up of two or more atoms.

Back 181

Molecules

Front 182

Molecules can combine with other
___ to form more complex
structures

Back 182

molecules

Front 183

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Back 183

Nucleic Acids

Front 184

Surrounds the nucleus and contains many
other types of organelles involved in
various activities, such as breaking down
nutrients and converting them to other
substances, storing and releasing energy,
releasing waste, and manufacturing
proteins in a process called protein
synthesis.

Back 184

Cytoplasm

Front 185

Process where organelles are involved in
various activities, such as breaking down
nutrients and converting them to other
substances, storing and releasing energy,
releasing waste, and manufacturing
proteins is called _____ ____

Back 185

protein
synthesis.

Front 186

oval structures enclosed
within a folded membrane, containing
their own distinct DNA, called
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Back 186

Mitochondria

Front 187

roughly symmetrical and
partly composed of RNA; essential in
protein synthesis.

Back 187

Ribosomes

Front 188

celllular components of body tissues,
such as muscle, bone, skin, nerve, heart, and brain

Back 188

Somatic cells

Front 189

sex cells involved in reproduction and not
important as structural components of the body
• Egg cells produced in female ovaries
• Sperm cells produced n male testes

Back 189

Gametes

Front 190

union of sex cells to form the potential of
developing into a new individual; in this way gametes
transmit genetic information from parent to offspring.

Back 190

Zygote

Front 191

Cellular function and an organism’s
inheritance depends on the ___ __________

Back 191

structure and
function of DNA.

Front 192

DNA is composed of two chains of
_____, comprising a double strand
or ______

Back 192

nucleotides
double helix

Front 193

A nucleotide consists of

Back 193

a sugar, a
phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous
bases.

Front 194

• Nucleotides form long chains.
• The two chains are held together by
bonds formed on their bases with their
complement on the other chain.

Back 194

DNA Structure

Front 195

Adenine (A) is the complement of

Back 195

Thymine(T)

Front 196

Guanine(G) is the complement of

Back 196

Cytosine(C)

Front 197

In genetics, referring to the fact that DNA
bases form base pairs in a precise
manner.
• For example, adenine can bond only to
thymine.
• These two bases are said to be
complementary because one requires the
other to form a complete DNA base.

Back 197

Complementary

Front 198

James Watson
and Francis Crick in
1953 with their model
of the structure of the
________

Back 198

DNA molecule

Front 199

• Cells multiply by dividing, making exact
copies of themselves and enabling
organisms to grow and injured tissues to
heal.

Back 199

DNA Replication

Front 200

The DNA molecule is able to make copies
of itself.

Back 200

DNA Replication

Front 201

• Specialized proteins that initiate and
direct chemical reactions in the body.

Back 201

Enzymes

Front 202

______ begins when enzymes break
the bonds between bases throughout the
DNA molecule, separating two previously
joined strands of nucleotides and leaving
their bases exposed.

Back 202

Replication

Front 203

1. Enzymes break the bonds between the
DNA molecule.
2. Two nucleotide chains serve as
templates for the formation of a new
strand of nucleotides.
3. Unattached nucleotides pair with the
appropriate complementary nucleotide

Back 203

The DNA Replication Process

Front 204

Complex, three dimensional molecules that
function through their ability to bind to other
molecules

Back 204

Proteins

Front 205

• The protein____, found in red blood
cells, is able to bind to oxygen, which carries it
throughout the body

Back 205

hemoglobin

Front 206

_____ are
composed of four
chains of amino acids
(two “alpha” chains
and two “beta”
chains).
• The red structures
are the portions that
bind to oxygen.

Back 206

Hemoglobin
molecules

Front 207

Substances (usually proteins) that are
produced by specialized cells and travel
to other parts of the body, where they
influence chemical reactions and regulate
various cellular functions.

Back 207

Hormones

Front 208

Small molecules that are the components
of proteins.

Back 208

Amino Acids

Front 209

___ are the building blocks of
protein.

Back 209

Amino acids

Front 210

Proteins differ according to ____and _____

Back 210

number of
amino acids and the sequence in which
they are arranged

Front 211

Ribosomes help convert the genetic
message from the DNA into proteins.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the
genetic message from the cell nucleus to
the ribosome.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA),found in the
cytoplasm, binds to one specific amino
acid.

Back 211

Protein Synthesis

Front 212

_____ help convert the genetic
message from the DNA into proteins.

Back 212

Ribosomes

Front 213

____carries the
genetic message from the cell nucleus to
the ribosome.

Back 213

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Front 214

_____,found in the
cytoplasm, binds to one specific amino
acid.

Back 214

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Front 215

RNA differs from DNA in three important ways:

Back 215

1. It’s usually single-stranded. (This is true of the
forms we discuss, but it’s not true for all.)
2. It contains a different type of sugar.
3. It contains the base uracil as a substitute for
the DNA base thymine. (Uracil is attracted to
adenine, just as thymine is.)

Front 216

usually single-stranded. (This is true of the
forms we discuss, but it’s not true for all.)

Back 216

RNA

Front 217

contains a different type of sugar than DNA

Back 217

RNA

Front 218

contains the base uracil as a substitute for
the DNA base thymine. (Uracil is attracted to
adenine, just as thymine is.)

Back 218

RNA

Front 219

___ is attracted to
adenine, just as thymine is.

Back 219

Uracil

Front 220

A form of RNA that’s assembled on a
sequence of DNA bases.

Back 220

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Front 221

It carries the DNA code to the ribosome
during protein synthesis.

Back 221

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Front 222

Triplets of messenger RNA bases that
code for specific amino acids during
protein synthesis.

Back 222

Codons

Front 223

The type of RNA that binds to amino
acids and transports them to the ribosome
during protein synthesis.

Back 223

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Front 224

• The process of coding a genetic message
for proteins by formation of mRNA.
• A portion of the DNA unwinds and serves
as a template for the formation of a
mRNA strand.

Back 224

Protein Synthesis: Transcription

Front 225

The process of coding a genetic message
for proteins by formation of ____.

Back 225

mRNA
Protein Synthesis: Transcription

Front 226

A portion of the DNA unwinds and serves
as a template for the formation of a
mRNA strand.

Back 226

Protein Synthesis: Transcription

Front 227

• The two DNA strands have partly separated.
• Free messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotides
have been drawn to the template strand, and a
strand of mRNA is being made.
• Note that the mRNA strand will exactly
complement the DNA template strand, except
that uracil (U) replaces thymine (T).

Back 227

Transcription

Front 228

In transcription the mRNA strand will exactly
complement the DNA template strand, except
that____replaces ____

Back 228

uracil (U)
thymine (T).

Front 229

• The mRNA travels through the nuclear
membrane to the ribosome.
• tRNAs arrive at the ribosome carrying their
specific amino acids.
• The base triplets on the tRNA match up with the
codons on the mRNA.
• As each tRNA line up in the sequence of
mRNA codons their amino acids link to form a
protein.

Back 229

Protein Synthesis: Translation

Front 230

The mRNA travels through the nuclear
membrane to the _____

Back 230

Protein Synthesis: Translation
ribosome

Front 231

___arrive at the ribosome carrying their
specific amino acids.

Back 231

Protein Synthesis: Translation
tRNAs

Front 232

The base triplets on the tRNA match up with the
_______.

Back 232

Protein Synthesis: Translation
codons on the mRNA.

Front 233

As each tRNA line up in the sequence of
mRNA codons their_____link to form a
protein.

Back 233

Protein Synthesis: Translation
amino acids

Front 234

A ____ is the entire sequence of DNA bases
responsible for the synthesis of a protein.

Back 234

gene

Front 235

A _____ occurs when the sequence of
bases in a gene is altered.

Back 235

mutation

Front 236

Mutations may interfere with the ability to
produce vital protein and may lead to a new
variety within the species,

Back 236

causing evolution

Front 237

Recently, geneticists have learned that
only some parts of genes, called_____,
are actually transcribed into mRNA (most
of the nucleotide sequences in genes are
not expressed during protein synthesis.

Back 237

exons

Front 238

Some noncoding sequences, called
___, are initially transcribed into
mRNA and then clipped out.

Back 238

introns

Front 239

Genes that code for the production of
proteins that can bind to DNA and modify
the action of genes.

Back 239

Regulatory Genes

Front 240

Many are active only during certain
stages of development.

Back 240

Regulatory Genes

Front 241

• An evolutionarily ancient family of
regulatory genes (highly conserved) that
directs the development of the overall
body plan and the segmentation of body
tissues.

Back 241

Homeobox Genes (Hox genes)

Front 242

____ determine the overall pattern of each type of
vertebra and of each individual vertebra.

Back 242

Hox genes

Front 243

• Cells are involved with normal cellular
and metabolic processes.
• The cell’s DNA becomes tightly coiled.
• DNA is visible under a microscope as
chromosomes.

Back 243

During cell division

Front 244

During cell division:
____ are involved with normal cellular
and metabolic processes

Back 244

Cells

Front 245

During cell division The cell’s ___ becomes tightly coiled.

Back 245

DNA

Front 246

• During cell division DNA is visible under a microscope as
___

Back 246

chromosomes

Front 247

A chromosome is composed of a____ and ______

Back 247

DNA molecule
and associated proteins.

Front 248

During normal cell functions, chromosomes
exist as _____

Back 248

single-stranded structures

Front 249

During cell division, chromosomes consist of
two strands of ___ joined at the____.

Back 249

DNA
centromere

Front 250

Since the DNA molecules have replicated, one
strand of a chromosome is an ____ copy of the
other

Back 250

exact

Front 251

Each species is characterized by a
specific number of ______

Back 251

chromosomes

Front 252

Humans have___ chromosomes.

Back 252

46

Front 253

Chromosome pairs are called
homologus if

Back 253

• They carry genetic information that
influences the same traits.
• They are not genetically identical.

Front 254

• Autosomes - govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination.

Back 254

Types of Chromosomes

Front 255

Autosomes - govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination.
• Sex chromosomes - X and Y
chromosome.
• Mammal females have two X
chromosomes.
• Mammal males have one X and
one Y chromosome

Back 255

Types of Chromosomes

Front 256

govern all physical
characteristics except sex determination.

Back 256

Autosomes

Front 257

• Sex chromosomes - ___ and _____
• Mammal females have two ___
chromosomes.
• Mammal males have ___ and _____ chromosome

Back 257

X and Y chromosome.
X
one X and one Y chromosome.

Front 258

____ is cell division in somatic cells.

Back 258

Mitosis

Front 259

___ occurs during growth and
repair/replacement of tissues.

Back 259

Mitosis

Front 260

The result of mitosis is

Back 260

two identical
daughter cells that are genetically
identical to the original cell.

Front 261

1. The 46 chromosomes line up in the
center of the cell.
2. The chromosomes are pulled apart at
the centromere.
3. The strands separate and move to
opposite ends of the dividing cell.
4. The cell membrane pinches in and two
new cells exist.

Back 261

Steps in Mitosis

Front 262

During mitosis the cell is involved in
_____ activities

Back 262

metabolic

Front 263

During mitosis DNA replication
occurs, but
______ are not
visible.

Back 263

chromosomes

Front 264

During mitosis first The ____disappears, and
double-stranded
chromosomes are
visible.

Back 264

nuclear
membrane

Front 265

During mitosis second The ______
align themselves at
the center of the cell.

Back 265

chromosomes

Front 266

During mitosis third The chromosomes
split at the
______, and the
strands separate and
move to opposite
ends of the dividing
cell.

Back 266

centromere

Front 267

During mitosis fourth The _____pinches in as the cell
continues to divide.
• The chromosomes
begin to uncoil (not
shown here).

Back 267

cell membrane

Front 268

After mitosis is
complete, there are
_______

Back 268

two identical
daughter cells.

Front 269

After mitosis is
complete the___ ___ is present,
and ______
are no longer visible.

Back 269

nuclear membrane
chromosomes

Front 270

Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries
and testes.

Back 270

Meiosis

Front 271

____ involves two divisions and results
in four daughter cells, each containing
only half the original number of
chromosomes.

Back 271

Meiosis

Front 272

Meiosis involves two divisions and results
in four daughter cells, each containing
only half the original number of
chromosomes.
• These cells can develop into ______

Back 272

gametes.

Front 273

Meiosis involves__ ___and results
in___daughter cells, each containing
only___the original number of
chromosomes.

Back 273

two divisions
four
half

Front 274

• Sometimes called crossing over; the
exchange of genetic material between
partner chromosomes during meiosis

Back 274

Recombination

Front 275

Recombination is the
exchange of genetic material between
partner chromosomes during _____.

Back 275

meiosis

Front 276

• Meiosis and sexual reproduction are
highly important evolutionary innovations.
• Meiosis increases genetic variation at a
faster rate than mutation.
• Offspring in sexually reproducing species
represent the combination of genetic
information from two parents.

Back 276

Evolutionary
Significance of Meiosis

Front 277

• Meiosis increases ______at a
faster rate than mutation.

Back 277

genetic variation

Front 278

• In order for fetal development to occur
normally, the meiotic process needs to be
exact
• If chromosomes or chromosome strands
do not separate during either of the two
divisions, serious problems can develop
• Failure to separate is called
nondisjunction

Back 278

Problems with Meiosis

Front 279

If chromosomes or chromosome strands
do not separate during either of the two
divisions, serious problems can develop Failure to separate is called
_______

Back 279

nondisjunction

Front 280

Allows scientists to make of copies of DNA
samples which can then be analyzed.

Back 280

Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR)

Front 281

• Examine nucleotide sequences in Neandertal
fossils and Egyptian mummies
• Identify an individual DNA sequences.
• Identify remains of victims of 911.
• Exonerate people wrongly convicted of
crimes.

Back 281

Scientists use PCR to:

Front 282

• A process in which genes from the cell of
one species are transferred to somatic
cells or gametes of another species.

Back 282

Recombinant DNA
Technology

Front 283

Recombinant DNA
Technology ____ manipulation

Back 283

Genetic

Front 284

Organisms that are genetically identical to
another organism.

Back 284

Clones

Front 285

The term may also be used in referring to
genetically identical DNA segments,
molecules, and cells.

Back 285

Clones

Front 286

Effort begun in 1990 to sequence the
entire human genome, which consists of
some 3 billion bases comprising
approximately 25,000 to 30,000 genes.
• The goal was achieved in 2003.
• Scientists are still several years away
from identifying the functions of many of
the proteins produced by these genes.

Back 286

Human Genome Project

Front 287

• The latest developments in assessing the
genetic sequences of chimpanzees and
humans have confirmed similarities in genes
that code for proteins and unanticipated
differences in sequences that don’t code for
proteins.
• Tiny differences in protein-coding sequences
may explain why humans are susceptible to
diseases like cholera, malaria, and influenza
while chimpanzees apparently are not.

Back 287

Why It Matters Human Genome Project

Front 288

The entire sequence of DNA bases on
the chromosome that code for a
particular polypeptide chain is a____.

Back 288

gene

Front 289

Which of the following is NOT true about
RNA?
a) It is single stranded.
b) Some forms of RNA are involved with
protein synthesis.
c) It has a different type of sugar than
DNA has.
d) It contains the base thymine.

Back 289

Answer : d
• The following is NOT true about RNA.
• It contains the base thymine.

Front 290

meiosis produces ____

Back 290

gametes

Front 291

A chromosomes is composed of
_________________and __________.

Back 291

a DNA
molecule and proteins.

Front 292

Somatic cell division is termed
_________________ .

Back 292

mitosis

Front 293

A monk living in what
is now the Czech
Republic

Back 293

Gregor Mendel

Front 294

Living in an abbey he
crossed different
strains of purebred
plants and studied
their progeny.

Back 294

Gregor Mendel

Front 295

His work illustrates
the basic rules of
inheritance.

Back 295

Gregor Mendel

Front 296

Offspring of parents that differ from each
other with regard to certain traits or
certain aspects of genetic makeup;
heterozygotes.

Back 296

Hybrids

Front 297

• Discrete units, or genes, occur in pairs
because chromosomes occur in pairs.
• During gamete production, members of
each gene pair separate so each gamete
contains one member of a pair.
• During fertilization, the full number of
chromosomes is restored and members
of a gene or allele pairs are reunited.

Back 297

Principle of Segregation

Front 298

Discrete units, or genes, occur in pairs
because___occur in pairs.

Back 298

Principle of Segregation
chromosomes

Front 299

During gamete production, members of
each gene pair separate so each gamete
contains ______

Back 299

Principle of Segregation
one member of a pair.

Front 300

During ______, the full number of
chromosomes is restored and members
of a gene or allele pairs are reunited.

Back 300

Principle of Segregation
fertilization

Front 301

• Dominant traits are governed by an allele
that can be expressed in the presence of
another, different allele.
• Dominant alleles prevent the
expression of recessive alleles in
heterozygotes.

Back 301

Dominance

Front 302

_____ are governed by an allele
that can be expressed in the presence of
another, different allele.

Back 302

Dominance
Dominant traits

Front 303

• Dominant alleles prevent the
expression of ______ alleles in
_______.

Back 303

Dominance
recessive
heterozygotes

Front 304

Recessive traits are not expressed in
heterozygotes.
• For a recessive allele to be expressed,
there must be two copies of the allele.

Back 304

Recessiveness

Front 305

• Recessive traits are not expressed in
______.

Back 305

Recessiveness
heterozygotes

Front 306

For a _____ to be expressed,
there must be two copies of the allele.

Back 306

Recessiveness
recessive allele

Front 307

Alternate forms of a gene.

Back 307

Alleles

Front 308

_____ occur at the same locus on a pair of
chromosomes and influence the same trait.

Back 308

Alleles

Front 309

The term is sometimes used synonymously with
gene.

Back 309

Alleles

Front 310

Alleles occur at the same locus on a pair of
______ and influence the same trait.
• However, because they are slightly different,
their action may result in __________

Back 310

chromosomes
different expressions
of that trait.

Front 311

Having the same allele at the same locus
on both members of a pair of
chromosomes.

Back 311

Homozygous

Front 312

Having different alleles at the same locus
on members of a pair of chromosomes.

Back 312

Heterozygous

Front 313

The position on a chromosome where a
given gene occurs.

Back 313

Locus

Front 314

The genetic makeup of an individual.

Back 314

Genotype

Front 315

______ can refer to an organism’s
entire genetic makeup or to the _____ at
a particular locus.

Back 315

Genotype
alleles

Front 316

Demonstrates how
alleles can be combined
when the F1 plants are
self-fertilized to produce
an F2 generation.
• Shows that 1/4 of the F2
plants should be
homozygous dominant
(TT), 1/2 heterozygous
(Tt), and the remaining
1/4 to be homozygous
recessive (tt).

Back 316

Punnett Square

Front 317

The observable or detectable physical
characteristics of an organism; the
detectable expressions of genotypes,
frequently influenced by environment.

Back 317

Phenotypes

Front 318

the
detectable expressions of genotypes,
frequently influenced by environment.

Back 318

Phenotypes

Front 319

• The distribution of one pair of alleles
into gametes does not influence the
distribution of another pair.

Back 319

Principle of
Independent Assortment

Front 320

The genes controlling different traits
are inherited independently of one
another.

Back 320

Principle of
Independent Assortment

Front 321

The chance distribution of chromosomes
to daughter cells during meiosis;

Back 321

Random Assortment

Front 322

along
with recombination, a source of genetic
variation (but not new alleles) from
meiosis.

Back 322

Random Assortment

Front 323

Characteristics that are influenced by
alleles at only one genetic locus.

Back 323

Mendelian Traits

Front 324

Examples include many blood types, such
as ABO, Many genetic disorders, including sicklecell
anemia and Tay-Sachs disease,

Back 324

Mendelian Traits

Front 325

Over 19,000 human trains are known to be
inherited according to _____ principles

Back 325

Mendelian

Front 326

The human ABO blood system is an example of
a simple ________.

Back 326

Mendelian inheritance

Front 327

The A and B alleles are dominant to the___
allele.

Back 327

O

Front 328

Neither the___ or ____ allele are dominant to one
another; they are codominant and both traits
are expressed.

Back 328

A or B

Front 329

Large molecules found on the surface of
cells.

Back 329

Antigens

Front 330

• Foreign ______ provoke an immune
response

Back 330

antigens

Front 331

Several different ____govern various antigens on red and white blood cells.

Back 331

loci

Front 332

The expression of two alleles in
heterozygotes.

Back 332

Codominance

Front 333

In codominance, neither allele is dominant
or recessive; thus, both influence the
_______.

Back 333

phenotype

Front 334

Hair, eye and skin color are _______

Back 334

polygenic traits

Front 335

______, or continuous traits, are
governed by alleles at two or more loci, and
each locus has some influence on the
phenotype.

Back 335

Polygenic traits

Front 336

Coloration is determined by ______
produced by specialized cells called
melanocytes

Back 336

pigment

Front 337

Melanin production is influenced by
interactions between several different____
that, until recently had not been identified

Back 337

loci

Front 338

• Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable phenotypic variation seen in
humans
• Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification
• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are polygenic traits
• Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters

Back 338

Polygenic traits and racial
classification

Front 339

Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable _____variation seen in
humans

Back 339

phenotypic

Front 340

Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification

Back 340

Polygenic traits

Front 341

• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are ______

Back 341

polygenic traits

Front 342

Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters

Back 342

Polygenic traits

Front 343

• Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable phenotypic variation seen in
humans
• Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification
• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are polygenic traits
• Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters

Back 343

Polygenic traits and racial
classification

Front 344

Polygenic traits account for most of the readily
observable _____variation seen in
humans

Back 344

phenotypic

Front 345

Traditionally serve as a basis for racial
classification

Back 345

Polygenic traits

Front 346

• Actually, stature, shape of face, fingerprint
patterns are ______

Back 346

polygenic traits

Front 347

Most can be measured, i.e. height in feet and
inches or meters and centimeters

Back 347

Polygenic traits

Front 348

The expression of the
trait is described in
terms of ______.

Back 348

frequencies

Front 349

Discontinuous Distribution of
Mendelian Traits

Back 349

Shows discontinuous
distribution of ABO
blood type in a
hypothetical
population.
• The expression of the
trait is described in
terms of frequencies.

Front 350

All cells contain mitochondria that convert
energy into a form that can be used by the cell.
• Each mitochondrion contains copies of a ringshaped
DNA molecule, or chromosome.
• Animals of both sexes inherit their mtDNA, and
all mitochondrial traits, from their mothers.
• All the variation in mtDNA is caused by
mutation, which makes it very useful for
studying genetic change over time.

Back 350

Mitochondrial Inheritance

Front 351

All cells contain ______ that convert
energy into a form that can be used by the cell.

Back 351

mitochondria

Front 352

Each ________ contains copies of a ringshaped
DNA molecule, or chromosome.

Back 352

mitochondrion

Front 353

Animals of both sexes inherit their ________, from their mothers.

Back 353

mtDNA, and
all mitochondrial traits

Front 354

All the variation in mtDNA is caused by
______, which makes it very useful for
studying genetic change over time.

Back 354

mutation

Front 355

_____________ as it has been considered from the
middle of the twentieth century, is a two-stage
process:
1. The production and redistribution of variation
(inherited differences among organisms).
2. Natural selection acting on this variation,
whereby inherited differences, or variation,
among individuals differentially affect their
ability to successfully reproduce

Back 355

The Modern Synthesis
Evolution

Front 356

Evolution, as it has been considered from the
middle of the twentieth century, is a two-stage
process:

Back 356

1. The production and redistribution of variation
(inherited differences among organisms).
2. Natural selection acting on this variation,
whereby inherited differences, or variation,
among individuals differentially affect their
ability to successfully reproduce.

Front 357

A Current Definition Of
Evolution
• From a modern genetic perspective, we define
evolution as a change in allele frequency
from one generation to the next.
• Allele frequencies are indicators of the genetic
makeup of a population, the members of which
share a common gene pool.
• In a population, allele frequencies refer to the
percentage of all the alleles at a locus
accounted for by one specific allele.

Back 357

A Current Definition Of
Evolution

Front 358

From a modern genetic perspective, we define
evolution as a change in ______
from one generation to the next

Back 358

allele frequency

Front 359

___________ are indicators of the genetic
makeup of a population, the members of which
share a common gene pool.

Back 359

Allele frequencies

Front 360

In a population, allele frequencies refer to the
percentage of all the ________accounted for by one specific_____.

Back 360

alleles at a locus
allele

Front 361

Small genetic changes that occur within a
species.

Back 361

Microevolution

Front 362

A human example is the variation seen in
the different ABO blood types.

Back 362

Microevolution

Front 363

Large-scale changes that occur in
populations after many generations, such
as the appearance of a new species
(speciation).

Back 363

Macroevolution

Front 364

the appearance of a new species

Back 364

speciation

Front 365

______ is a molecular alteration in genetic
material:

Back 365

Mutation

Front 366

is a molecular alteration in genetic
material:
• For a mutation to have evolutionary
significance it must occur in a gamete.
• Mutation rates for any given trait are usually
low
• When combined with natural selection,
evolutionary changes can occur and can
occur more rapidly.

Back 366

Mutation

Front 367

For a mutation to have evolutionary
significance it must occur in a ______.

Back 367

gamete

Front 368

When combined with natural selection,
evolutionary changes can occur and can
occur more rapidly.

Back 368

Mutation

Front 369

Mutation rates for any given trait are usually
_____

Back 369

low

Front 370

• The exchange of genes between populations.
• If individuals move temporarily and mate in the
new population (leaving a genetic contribution),
they don’t necessarily stay there.
• Example: The offspring of U.S. soldiers and
Vietnamese women represent gene flow, even
though the fathers returned to their native
population.

Back 370

Gene Flow

Front 371

• Genetic drift occurs solely because the
population is small:
• Alleles with low frequencies may not be
passed to offspring and eventually disappear
from the population.

Back 371

Genetic Drift

Front 372

Alleles with________may not be
passed to offspring and eventually disappear
from the population.

Back 372

low frequencies

Front 373

Recombination doesn’t change allele
frequencies, or cause evolution.
• Recombination changes the composition
of parts of chromosomes
• Recombination affects how some genes
act, and slight changes of gene function
can become material for natural selection
to act upon.

Back 373

Recombination

Front 374

Recombination changes the composition
of parts of _______

Back 374

chromosomes

Front 375

_______ affects how some genes
act, and slight changes of gene function
can become material for natural selection
to act upon.

Back 375

Recombination

Front 376

Natural selection provides directional change in
allele frequency relative to specific
environmental factors.
• If the environment changes, selection pressures
also change.
• If there are long-term environmental changes in
a consistent direction, then allele frequencies
should also shift gradually each generation.

Back 376

Natural Selection

Front 377

Natural selection provides directional change in
________ relative to specific
environmental factors.

Back 377

allele frequency

Front 378

• If there are long-term environmental changes in
a consistent direction, then _________
should also shift gradually each generation.

Back 378

allele frequencies

Front 379

• A severe inherited hemoglobin disorder in
which red blood cells collapse when deprived of
oxygen.
• It results from inheriting two copies of a mutant
allele.
• This mutation is caused by a single base
substitution in the DNA.

Back 379

Sickle-cell Anemia

Front 380

• Many human disorders are caused by
mutations in genes at one locus. The
more we know about Mendelian
disorders, the better prepared we are to
make decisions due to a family history of
genetic difficulties.

Back 380

Why It Matters
Mendelian disorders

Front 381

• Huntington disease affects about 1 out of every
100,000 people and is caused by a dominant
mutation on chromosome 4.
• A person with the allele has a 50% chance of
passing it their offspring.
• There is no cure and symptoms most often
occur between ages 35 and 45.
• By this time, most people who want children
have had them and may have passed the
mutant allele on to their offspring.

Back 381

Huntington Disease

Front 382

Huntington disease affects about 1 out of every
100,000 people and is caused by a dominant
mutation on _____.

Back 382

chromosome 4

Front 383

Mendel used the term ______ for a
trait that prevented another trait from
appearing.

Back 383

dominant

Front 384

Genes exist in pairs in individuals;
during the production of gametes, the
pairs are separated so that a gamete
has only one of each kind. This is known
as the ____________

Back 384

principle of segregation

Front 385

Traits that have a range of phenotypic
expressions and show a continuum of
variation are termed ______

Back 385

polygenic

Front 386

When alleles are introduced into a
population from another population, this
is known as _______

Back 386

gene flow/migration

Front 387

The most complete definition of
biological evolution is a .

Back 387

change in allele
frequency from one generation to the
next

Front 388

• Specialized limbs and locomotion
• Lack of dietary specialization, reflected in
dentition
• Visual acuity and reduced sense of smell
• Neocortex expansion

Back 388

Physical Characteristics of
Primates

Front 389

• Longer period of gestation and
dependency of offspring
• Dependence on flexible, learned behavior
• Social groups and permanent association
of adult males
• Diurnal activities

Back 389

Social Characteristics

Front 390

• Changes in diet, reliance on vision,
grasping hands and feet came about with
arboreal settings, forward-facing eyes
(facilitate binocular vision), rise of
angiosperms (flowering plants)

Back 390

Evolutionary Factors

Front 391

• A tendency towards erect posture.
• Hands and feet possess grasping ability.
• Features of the hands and feet:
• 5 digits on hand and feet
• Opposable thumb
• Partially opposable great toe
• Tactile pads enriched with sensory
nerve fibers at the ends of digits

Back 391

Primate Limbs

Front 392

A horse’s front foot,
_________ with a
human hand, has
undergone reduction
from 5 digits to one.

Back 392

homologous

Front 393

• Omnivorous
• Incisors for biting and cutting; premolars
and molars for chewing and grinding
• Dental formula
• Old World anthropoids have two
incisors, one canine, two premolars,
and three molars on each side in both
upper and lower jaws: 2.1.2.3 (32 teeth
total)

Back 393

Primate Diet and Teeth

Front 394

Old World anthropoids have two
incisors, one canine, two premolars,
and three molars on each side in both
upper and lower jaws: 2.1.2.3

Back 394

32 teeth total

Front 395

• Color vision is a characteristic of diurnal
primates.
• Nocturnal primates lack color vision.
• Depth perception is made possible by
eyes positioned forward on the front of the
face.
• Primates have a decreased reliance on
the sense of smell.

Back 395

Primate Senses

Front 396

• Color vision is a characteristic of ____

Back 396

diurnal
primates

Front 397

Nocturnal primates lack_____vision.

Back 397

color

Front 398

Primates have a decreased reliance on
the________

Back 398

sense of smell

Front 399

Primates have a decreased reliance on
the________

Back 399

sense of smell

Front 400

• Quadrupedal, walk on all fours
• Vertical clinging and leaping
• Brachiation
• Knuckle walking

Back 400

Locomotion

Front 401

• Quadrupedal, walk on all fours
• Vertical clinging and leaping
• Brachiation
• Knuckle walking

Back 401

Locomotion

Front 402

The condition whereby visual images are
superimposed on one another.

Back 402

Stereoscopic Vision

Front 403

The condition whereby visual images are
superimposed on one another.

Back 403

Stereoscopic Vision

Front 404

This provides for depth perception, or the
perception of the external environment in
three dimensions.

Back 404

Stereoscopic Vision

Front 405

This provides for depth perception, or the
perception of the external environment in
three dimensions.

Back 405

Stereoscopic Vision

Front 406

Vision characterized by overlapping visual
fields provided for by forward-facing eyes.

Back 406

Binocular Vision

Front 407

Vision characterized by overlapping visual
fields provided for by forward-facing eyes.

Back 407

Binocular Vision

Front 408

Binocular vision is essential to ___________.

Back 408

depth perception

Front 409

Two halves of the cerebrum that are
connected by a dense mass of fibers.

Back 409

Hemispheres

Front 410

The____is the large rounded outer
portion of the brain.

Back 410

cerebrum

Front 411

Most live in tropical or semitropical areas
of the new and old worlds.
• Most are arboreal, living in forest or
woodland habitats.
• No nonhuman primate is adapted to a
fully terrestrial environment; all spend
some time in the trees.

Back 411

Primate Habitats

Front 412

• Lemurs and Lorises
• Tarsiers
• Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and
Humans
• New World Monkeys
• Old World Monkeys

Back 412

Survey of Living Primates

Front 413

The most primitive of the primates.

Back 413

Lemurs and Lorises

Front 414

• Reliance on olfaction
• Laterally placed eyes
• Shorter gestation and maturation
• Dental specialization called the "dental
comb”

Back 414

Lemurs and Lorises Characteristics

Front 415

The moist, fleshy pad at the end of the
nose seen in most mammals.
enhances an animal’s
ability to smell.

Back 415

rhinarium

Front 416

Formed by forwardprojecting
incisors
and canines.

Back 416

Lemur Dental Comb

Front 417

Found on the island of Madagascar and other
islands off the coast of Africa, Extinct elsewhere in the world.

Back 417

Lemurs

Front 418

• Larger lemurs are diurnal and eat vegetable
foods: fruit, leaves, buds, and bark.
• Smaller lemurs are nocturnal and
insectivorous (insect -feeding).

Back 418

Lemurs Characteristics

Front 419

Found in tropical forests and woodlands of
India, Sri Lanka, southeast Asia, and Africa.

Back 419

Lorises

Front 420

• Use a climbing quadrupedalism.
• Some are insectivorous; others supplement
their diet with fruit, leaves, gums, and slugs.
• Females frequently form associations for
foraging or in sharing the same sleeping
nest.

Back 420

Lorises Characteristics

Front 421

• Small nocturnal primates found on the
islands of southeast Asia.
• Eat insects and small vertebrates which
they catch by leaping from branches.
• Basic social pattern appears to be a
family unit consisting of a mated pair and
their offspring.

Back 421

Tarsiers

Front 422

• Larger brain and body size
• Reduced reliance on the sense of smell
• Greater degree of color vision
• Bony plate at the back of the eye socket
• Different female reproductive anatomy
• Longer gestation and maturation periods
• Fused mandible

Back 422

Anthropoids Common traits:
(Monkeys, Apes and Humans)

Front 423

• Represent about 85% of all primate
species.
• Divided into two groups separated by
geography and several million years of
evolutionary history:
• New World monkeys
• Old World monkeys

Back 423

Monkeys

Front 424

• 70 species almost exclusively arboreal.
• Found in southern Mexico and Central
and South America.
• Two families: Callitrichidae and Cebid

Back 424

New World Monkeys

Front 425

Two families: Callitrichidae and Cebid

Back 425

New World Monkeys

Front 426

• Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid
desert to snow-covered areas in Japan and
china.
• Characteristics:
• Most quadrupedal and arboreal
• All belong to the Cercopithecidae family.
• Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines
and the colobines.

Back 426

Old World Monkeys

Front 427

The subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes baboons, macaques, and
guenons.
• Omnivorous, cheek pouches, majority
found in Africa

Back 427

Cercopithecines

Front 428

The subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes the African colobus monkeys and
Asian langurs.

Back 428

Colobines

Front 429

Differences in physical characteristics
between males and females of the same
species. For example, humans are slightly sexually
dimorphic for body size, with males being
taller, on average, than females of the
same population.

Back 429

Sexual Dimorphism

Front 430

• Found in the tropical areas of southeast Asia.
• Adaptations for brachiation may be related to
feeding while hanging from branches.
• Diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers, and
insects.
• Basic social unit is a monogamous pair and
their offspring.
• Males and females delineate their territories
with whoops and “songs”.

Back 430

Gibbons and Siamangs

Front 431

• White-handed gibbon brachiating.
• Note the long curved fingers, long arms, and
heavily muscled shoulders.

Back 431

Gibbons

Front 432

• Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo
and Sumatra.
• Almost completely arboreal.
• males = 200 lbs, females = 100 lbs
• Pronounced sexual dimorphism.
• Solitary
• Principally frugivorous (fruit-eating).

Back 432

Orangutans (Pogo pygmaeus)

Front 433

• Larger body size
• Absence of a tail
• Shortened trunk
• More complex behavior
• More complex brain
• Increased period of infant development

Back 433

Hominoids (Apes and Humans)
• Characteristics distinguishing hominoids
from monkeys:

Front 434

• Largest of the living primates.
• Confined to forested regions of central Africa.
• Males can weigh up to 400 pounds, females
200 pounds.
• Primarily terrestrial, using a posture called
“knuckle –walking”.
• Groups consist of one large silverback male, a
few adult females, and their subadult offspring.
• Confined to forested areas of western and
eastern equatorial Africa

Back 434

Gorillas

Front 435

• Found in equatorial Africa.
• Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in
limb proportions and upper-body shape.
• Locomotion includes knuckle-walking on the
ground and brachiation in the trees.
• Eat a variety of plant and animal foods.
• Large communities of as many as 50
individuals.

Back 435

Chimpanzees

Front 436

• Only found in an area south of the Zaire River.
• Population is believed to only number a few
thousand individuals.
• Exploit the same foods as chimps, including
occasional small mammals.
• Male-female bonds constitute the societal core.
• Sexuality includes frequent copulations
throughout the female's estrous cycle.

Back 436

Bonobos (Pan paniscus)

Front 437

• The only living species in the family
Hominidae.
• Human teeth are typical primate teeth.
• Dependence on vision for orientation to
the world

Back 437

Humans (Homo sapiens)

Front 438

• Flexible limbs and grasping hands
• Omnivorous diet
• Cognitive abilities are the result of
dramatic increases in brain size.
• Bipedal

Back 438

Humans (Homo sapiens)

Front 439

• Mental capacity; ability to learn, reason,
or comprehend and interpret information,
facts, relationships, and meanings.
• The capacity to solve problems, whether
through the application of previously
acquired knowledge or through insight.

Back 439

Humans (Homo sapiens)
Intelligence

Front 440

• Over half of all living ______ are
endangered, many face immediate
extinction

Back 440

Primates

Front 441

• Habitat destruction
• Hunting for food
• Live capture for export or local trade

Back 441

Endangered Primates
extinction.
• Three reasons:

Front 442

• In West Africa the most serious problem
is hunting to feed the growing human
population.
• Estimated that thousands of primates, are
killed and sold for meat every year.
• Primates are also killed for commercial
products.

Back 442

Hunting of Primates

Front 443

Most people don’t know much about
nonhuman primates, and of those who do,
a majority probably don’t realize how
seriously endangered they are.
• Some don’t care because their lives
wouldn’t substantially change if
chimpanzees became extinct in the wild.

Back 443

Endangered Primates
Why It Matters

Front 444

• Living nonhuman primates represent a lineage
that goes back approximately 60 million years.
• They can provide us with information about how
evolutionary processes have produced the
diversity we see in our own lineage today.
• We can identify genetic causes for certain
conditions (such as AIDS) that humans are
susceptible to but chimpanzees are able to
resist.

Back 444

Endangered Primates
Why It Matters

Front 445

A highly developed sense of smell ____a primate characteristic.

Back 445

is
NOT

Front 446

Binocular vision in primates contributes
to ________

Back 446

stereoscopic vision

Front 447

The _________________ is the
largest living primate.

Back 447

gorilla

Front 448

The establishment of biological
reserves_____ a reason that nonhuman
primates are endangered.

Back 448

is NOT

Front 449

Chimpanzees aren’t monkeys, and neither are gorillas or orangutans. They’re_____

Back 449

apes,

Front 450

means that primates have retained several ancestral mammalian traits that some other mammals have lost over time.

Back 450

generalized

Front 451

Having a diet consisting of many food types, such as plant mate-rials, meat, and insects.

Back 451

omnivorous

Front 452

Active during the day

Back 452

diurnal

Front 453

character-ized by overlapping visual fields provided by forward- facing eyes

Back 453

binocular vision

Front 454

In general, _____ are omnivorous.

Back 454

­primates

Front 455

made possible through a variety of mechanisms, including: a. Eyes placed toward the front of the face ( not to the sides). This position provides for overlapping visual fields, or binocular vision ( Fig. 6- 2). b. Visual information from each eye transmitted to visual centers in both hemispheres of the brain. In nonprimate mammals, most optic nerve fibers cross to the opposite hemisphere

Back 455

Depth perception

Front 456

portions of the brain where information from dif-ferent sensory modalities is combined

Back 456

neocortex

Front 457

This is a general trend among placental mammals, but it’s especially true of primates In primates, this expansion is most evident in the visual and association areas of the neocortex

Back 457

Expansion and increased complexity of the brain.

Front 458

Different forms of sensation ( e. g., touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold, vision, taste, hearing, and smell).

Back 458

sensory modalities

Front 459

The more recently evolved portion of the brain that is involved in higher mental functions and composed of areas that integrate incoming informa-tion from different sensory organs.

Back 459

neocortex

Front 460

Forward- facing eyes are positioned above the snout in _______; but in wolves, the eyes are positioned more to the side of the face

Back 460

baboons

Front 461

refers to several interrelated vari-ables, including climate, diet, habitat ( woodland, grassland, forest, and so on), and predation.

Back 461

environmental circumstances

Front 462

group of characteristics shared by primates has been explained as the result of an adaptation to ______.

Back 462

arboreal living

Front 463

proposed an alternative to the traditional arboreal hypothesis, called the visual predation hypothesis. Cartmill pointed out that while some animals ( squirrels, for example) don’t have forward- facing eyes, visual pred-ators like cats and owls do, and this fact may suggest an additional factor that could have shaped primate evolution.

Back 463

Cartmill ( 1972, 1992)

Front 464

adapted to life in the trees

Back 464

arboreal Tree- living

Front 465

An organism’s entire way of life: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets food, how it avoids preda-tors, and so on.

Back 465

adaptive niche

Front 466

Like nearly all other mammals, almost all primates have four kinds of teeth: .

Back 466

incisors and canines for biting and cutting, and premolars and molars for chewing and grinding

Front 467

Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws.

Back 467

dental formula

Front 468

Old World anthropoids have __________________on each side of the midline in both the upper and lower jaws, for a total of 32 teeth.

Back 468

two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars

Front 469

The dental formula for a generalized placental mammal is 3.1.4.3

Back 469

three inci-sors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars

Front 470

humans, apes, and all Old World monkeys share the same dental formula:______This formula differs from that of the New World monkeys in which there are three ___

Back 470

2.1.2.3.
premolars

Front 471

The bumps on the chewing sur-face of premolars and molars

Back 471

cusps

Front 472

Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian ( and primate) form of ­locomotion.

Back 472

quadrupedal

Front 473

Arm swinging, a form of locomotion used by some primates

Back 473

brachiation

Front 474

_______ involves hanging from a branch and moving by alternately swing-ing from one arm to the other.

Back 474

Brachiation

Front 475

World monkeys, such as spider monkeys and muriquis ( see p. 135), are called _______ since they practice a combination of leaping with some arm swinging

Back 475

semibrachiators

Front 476

which in effect serves as a grasping fifth hand

Back 476

prehensile tail
no Old World monkeys have prehensile tails.

Front 477

all the apes, to varying degrees, have arms that are _____ than legs

Back 477

longer

Front 478

gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees practice a special form of quadru-pedalism called ______

Back 478

knuckle walking

Front 479

the suborder, primates are divided into two smaller categories:

Back 479

Strepsirhini ( lemurs and lorises) and Haplorhini ( tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans).

Front 480

Strepsirhini

Back 480

lemurs and lorises

Front 481

Haplorhini

Back 481

tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

Front 482

When a complete draft sequence of the chimpanzee genome was completed in 2005 ( The Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium, 2005), it was a major milestone in _______

Back 482

human comparative genomics

Front 483

Comparisons of the genomes of different species are important because they reveal such _______ as the number of nucleotide substitutions and/ or deletions that have occurred since related species last shared a common ancestor.Geneticists estimate the rate at which genes change, and then they combine this information with the amount of difference they observe to estimate when related species last shared a common ancestor.

Back 483

differences in DNA

Front 484

The suborder Strepsirhini includes the lemurs and lorises,

Back 484

the most primitive liv-ing primates

Front 485

by ____we mean that lemurs and lorises are more similar anatomically to their earlier mammalian ancestors than are the other primates ( tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans).

Back 485

primitive

Front 486

________ also mark their territories with scent, something not seen in most other primates.

Back 486

Lemurs and lorises

Front 487

they retain certain ancestral characteristics, such as a greater reliance on olfaction. Their greater olfactory capabilities ( compared to other primates) are reflected in the presence of a moist, fleshy pad, or rhinarium, at the end of the nose and a rela-tively long snout ( Fig. 6- 11).

Back 487

Lemurs and lorises

Front 488

1. A larger average body size 2. Larger brain in absolute terms and relative to body weight 3. Reduced reliance on the sense of smell, as indicated by the absence of a rhi-narium and other ­structures 4. Increased reliance on vision, with forward- facing eyes placed more to the front of the face 5. Greater degree of color vision 6. Back of eye socket protected by a bony plate 7. Blood supply to the brain different from that of lemurs and lorises 8. Fusion of the two sides of the mandible at the midline to form one bone ( in lemurs and lorises, they’re two distinct bones joined by cartilage at the middle of the chin) 9. More generalized dentition, as seen in the absence of a dental comb 10. Differences in female internal reproductive anatomy 11. Longer gestation and maturation periods 12. Increased parental care 13. More mutual grooming

Back 488

Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans these traits distinguish them as a group from lemurs and lorises

Front 489

New World monkeys are almost exclusively _____, and some never come to the ground. Like the Old World monkeys, all except one species ( the owl monkey) are diurnal.

Back 489

arboreal

Front 490

_____and_________are the smallest of the New World monkeys, and they have several distinguishing features. They have claws instead of nails, and unlike other primates, they usually give birth to twins instead of one infant. They’re mostly insectivorous, although marmosets eat gums from trees, and tamarins eat fruits.

Back 490

Marmosets and tamarins

Front 491

The subfamily of Old World mon-keys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons.

Back 491

cercopithecidae
cercopithecines

Front 492

Common name for members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs.

Back 492

colobines

Front 493

Except for humans_____are the most widely distributed of all living primates.

Back 493

Old World monkeys

Front 494

all Old World monkeys are placed in one taxonomic family,

Back 494

Cercopithecidae.

Front 495

all Old World monkeys are placed in one taxonomic family, Cercopithecidae. In turn, this family is divided into two subfamilies: ________

Back 495

the cercopithecines and colobines.

Front 496

The ______ are the more generalized of the two groups: They’re more omnivorous, and they have cheek pouches for storing food, much like hamsters.

Back 496

cercopithecines

Front 497

_____species have a narrower range of food preferences and mainly eat mature leaves, which is why they’re also called_______

Back 497

Colobine
leaf- eating monkeys

Front 498

Mendel’s first principle of inheritance, known as the ______.

Back 498

principle of segregation

Front 499

Today we know that______explains Mendel’s principle of segregation.

Back 499

meiosis

Front 500

Genes ( alleles) occur in pairs because chromo-somes occur in pairs. During gamete for-mation, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair.

Back 500

principle of segregation

Front 501

Describing a trait that isn’t expressed in heterozygotes, also refers to the allele that governs the trait.

Back 501

recessive

Front 502

For a recessive allele to be expressed, an indi-vidual must have______of it ( i. e., the individual must be homozygous).

Back 502

two copies

Front 503

Describing a trait governed by an allele that’s expressed in the pres-ence of another allele ( i. e., in hetero­zygotes).

Back 503

dominant

Front 504

______prevent the expression of recessive alleles in hetero­zygotes.

Back 504

Dominant alleles

Front 505

Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in hetero­zygotes.

Back 505

complete dominance

Front 506

It shows the different ways alleles can be combined

Back 506

Punnett square.

Front 507

It’s important to understand that the only way a recessive allele can be expressed is if it occurs with another ______, that is, if the individual is homozygous recessive at the particular locus in question.

Back 507

recessive allele

Front 508

Mendel also demonstrated that different characteristics aren’t necessarily inher-ited together by showing that plant height and seed color are independent of each other. That is, any tall pea plant had a 50- 50 chance of producing either yellow or green peas. Because of this fact, he developed the ___

Back 508

principle of independent assortment.

Front 509

According to the _________, the units ( genes) that code for different traits ( in this example, plant height and seed color) sort out independently of each other during gamete formation.

Back 509

principle of independent assortment.

Front 510

The vertebrates themselves are subdivided into five classes: .

Back 510

cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles/ birds, and mammals

Front 511

Similarities between organisms based on descent from a ­common ancestor.

Back 511

homologies

Front 512

Similarities between organ-isms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent

Back 512

analogies

Front 513

The sepa-rate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms.

Back 513

homoplasy ( homo, meaning “ same,” and plasy, meaning “ growth”)

Front 514

Evolutionary biologists typically use two major approaches, or “ schools,” when interpreting evolutionary relationships with the goal of producing classifications.

Back 514

evolutionary systematics
cladistics

Front 515

An approach to classifica-tion that attempts to make rigorous evo-lutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters ( those considered to be derived characters).

Back 515

cladistics

Front 516

Referring to characters inherited by a group of organisms from a remote ancestor and thus not diagnostic of groups ( lineages) that diverged after the character first appeared; also called primitive

Back 516

ancestral

Front 517

A group of organisms sharing a common ancestor. The group includes the common ancestor and all descendants.

Back 517

clade

Front 518

Referring to characters that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages.

Back 518

derived ( modified)

Front 519

A tradi-tional approach to classification ( and evolutionary interpretation) in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time by analysis of homologous characters.

Back 519

evolutionary systematics

Front 520

simply means that a character seen in two organisms is inherited in both of them from a distant ancestor.

Back 520

primitive or ancestral

Front 521

When we try to identify a clade, the characters of interest are said to be ______

Back 521

derived, or modified.

Front 522

______focuses on traits that distinguish particular evolutionary lineages; such traits are far more informative than ances-tral traits.

Back 522

Cladistics

Front 523

Relating to specific character traits shared in common between two life- forms and considered the most useful for making evolutionary interpretations.

Back 523

shared derived

Front 524

A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by evolutionary systematics. It contains a time component and implies ancestor-descendant relationships

Back 524

phylogenetic tree

Front 525

A chart showing evolu-tionary relationships as determined by cladistic analysis. It’s based solely on interpretation of shared derived charac-ters. It contains no time component and does not imply ancestor- descendant relationships.

Back 525

cladogram

Front 526

A depiction of species as groups of individ-uals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Back 526

biological species concept

Front 527

The process by which a new species evolves from an earlier spe-cies.

Back 527

speciation

Front 528

______ is the most basic process in macroevolution.

Back 528

Speciation

Front 529

Gene exchange between populations ( gene flow) will be limited if a geographical barrier, such as an ocean or mountain range, effectively separates these populations. This extremely important form of isolating mechanism is called_________

Back 529

geographical isolation.

Front 530

Species defined from fossil evidence, often covering a long time span

Back 530

paleospecies

Front 531

Between species; refers to variation beyond that seen within the same species to include additional aspects seen between two different species

Back 531

interspecific

Front 532

Within species; refers to variation seen within the same species

Back 532

intraspecific

Front 533

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.

Back 533

sexual dimorphism

Front 534

A______is therefore defined as a group of species composed of members more closely related to each other than they are to species from any other genus.

Back 534

genus

Front 535

An ______represents a general ecological lifestyle more basic than the narrower ecological niches characteristic of individual species.

Back 535

adaptive zone

Front 536

The study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.

Back 536

taphonomy

Front 537

geological time scale The organization of earth history into ___, ___, ____ commonly used by geolo-gists and ­paleoanthropologists.

Back 537

eras, periods, and epochs

Front 538

Vertebrate and Mammalian Evolution Periods, in turn, can be broken down into ___.

Back 538

epochs

Front 539

For the time span encompass-ing vertebrate evolution, there are three eras:

Back 539

the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.

Front 540

The earliest vertebrate fossils date to early in the _____at 500 mya

Back 540

Paleozoic

Front 541

During the ____ several varieties of fishes ( including the ancestors of modern sharks and bony fishes), amphibians, and reptiles appeared.

Back 541

Paleozoic,

Front 542

The evolutionary history of vertebrates and other organisms during the ___ and____ was profoundly influenced by geographical events.

Back 542

Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Front 543

During the late Paleozoic, the continents came together to form a single colossal landmass called ____

Back 543

Pangea.

Front 544

During the early Mesozoic, the southern continents ( South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India) began to split off from Pangea, forming a large southern continent called ______

Back 544

Gondwanaland

Front 545

Trilobites abundant; also brachiopods, jellyfish, worms, and other invertebrates.

Back 545

Cambrian

Front 546

First fishes; trilobites still abundant; graptolites and corals become plentiful; possible land plants.

Back 546

Ordovician

Front 547

Jawed fishes appear; first air- breathing animals; definite land plants

Back 547

Silurian

Front 548

Age of Fish; first amphibians and first forests appear.

Back 548

Devonian

Front 549

First reptiles; radiation of amphibians; modern insects diversify.

Back 549

Carboniferous

Front 550

( North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia) were consolidated into a northern landmass called ______

Back 550

Laurasia.

Front 551

During the _____, Gondwanaland and Laurasia continued to drift apart and to break up into smaller segments. By the end of the ______ ( about 65 mya), the continents were beginning to assume their current positions

Back 551

Mesozoic
Mesozoic

Front 552

During most of the ____, reptiles were the dominant land vertebrates, and they exhibited a broad expansion into a variety of ecological niches, which included aerial and marine habitats. The most famous of these highly successful _____ reptiles were the dinosaurs

Back 552

Mesozoic
Mesozoic

Front 553

The Cenozoic is divided into two periods:

Back 553

the Tertiary and Quaternary,

Front 554

from about 1.8 mya up to and including the present.

Back 554

Quaternary

Front 555

about 63 million years in duration

Back 555

Tertiary

Front 556

Paleontologists often refer to the next, more precise level of subdivision within the Cenozoic as the _____

Back 556

epochs

Front 557

There are seven epochs within the Cenozoic:

Back 557

the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene, the last often referred to as the Recent epoch

Front 558

During the Cenozoic, _____ became the most widespread and numerous mammals and today are repre-sented by upward of 20 orders, including the primates.

Back 558

placentals
placental A type ( subclass) of mam-mal.

Front 559

Having different kinds of teeth; characteristic of mammals, whose teeth consist of incisors, canines, premo-lars, and molars.

Back 559

heterodont

Front 560

It was during this era that, along with birds, mammals replaced earlier reptiles as the dominant land- living vertebrates.

Back 560

Cenozoic the Age of Mammals.

Front 561

Except for birds, reptiles maintain a constant internal body temperature through exposure to the sun; these reptiles are said to be _____.

Back 561

ectothermic

Front 562

In mammals and birds, however, energy is generated internally through metabolic activity ( by processing food or by muscle action); for this rea-son, mammals and birds are said to be _______

Back 562

endothermic.

Front 563

three major subgroups of living mammals:.

Back 563

the egg- laying mammals, or monotremes; the pouched mammals, or marsupials; and the placental mammals

Front 564

_______, of which the platypus is one example ( Fig. 5- 16), are extremely primitive and are considered more distinct from marsupials or placentals than these two subgroups are from each other.

Back 564

monotremes

Front 565

the potential capacity of a group of organisms to multiply is practically unlimited, but its ability to increase its numbers is ­regulated largely by______________

Back 565

the availability of resources ( food, water, shelter, and space).

Front 566

The relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life- forms into new ecological niches.

Back 566

adaptive radiation

Front 567

Another aspect of evolution closely related to adaptive radiation involves the transition from generalized characteristics to specialized characteristics. These two terms refer to the ____ ____ of a particular trait.

Back 567

adaptive potential

Front 568

A trait that’s adapted for many functions is said to be _______, while one that’s limited to a narrow set of functions is said to be ______.

Back 568

generalized
specialized

Front 569

It’s important to note that only a ___ ____can provide the flexible evolutionary basis for rapid diversification.

Back 569

generalized ancestor

Front 570

The conventional view of evolu-tion has emphasized that change accumulates gradually in evolving lineages, an idea called ______.

Back 570

phyletic gradualism

Front 571

The con-cept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctu-ated by rapid periods of change.

Back 571

punctuated equilibrium

Front 572

In this model, there are no “ missing links” between species; the gaps are real, not artifacts of an imperfect fossil record.

Back 572

punctuated equilibrium

Front 573

In summary, the critical difference between phyletic gradualism and punctu-ated equilibrium relates to how the ____ ____events probably occurred in the past.

Back 573

timing of speciation

Front 574

____ ____predicts slow accumulation of adaptive differ-ences that finally culminate in a new species

Back 574

Phyletic gradualism

Front 575

____ _____ predicts that no changes occur for long periods of time until there is a sudden adaptive change, which results in a new species.

Back 575

punctuated equilibrium

Front 576

two major orga-nizing perspectives prove indispensable:

Back 576

( 1) schemes of formal classification to orga-nize organic diversity and ( 2) the geological time scale to organize geological time.

Front 577

evolutionary biologists have postulated two different modes of evolu-tionary change:

Back 577

gradualism and punctu-ated equilibrium.