Ans 313 Vitamins And Minerals

Front 1

Commonly Required Macrominerals

Back 1

• Calcium (Ca2+)
• Potassium (K+)
• Magnesium (Mg2+)
• Phosphorus PO43-)
• Sodium (Na+)
• Sulfur (S-)
• Chlorine (Cl-)

Front 2

Commonly Required Microminerals or Trace Minerals

Back 2

• Iron (Fe2+,3+)
• Manganese (Mn2+)
• Copper
• Zinc
• Iodine
• Cobalt
• Selenium

Front 3

• Minerals that are required in minute amounts and are almost never deficient

Back 3

- Aluminum (Al) - Boron (B)
- Chromium (Cr) - Nickel (Ni)
- Silicon (Si) - Tin (Sn)
- Vanadium (V)

Front 4

• Minerals that are required in minute amounts but are more commonly considered toxic

Back 4

- Arsenic (As) - Barium (Ba)
- Molybdenum (Mo) - Bromine (Br)
- Flourine (F) - Lithium (Li)
- Cadmium (Cd)
- Lead (Pb)

Front 5

• Minerals that are not required and are commonly considered toxic:

Back 5

- Mercury (Hg)

Front 6

A. Functions of Ca2+

Back 6

1. Bone - Ca, PO4, F Hydroxyapatite
2. Muscle contractions and nerve conduction (Ca ATP ase)
3. Enzyme activators
4. Cellular intermediary (second messenger)
5. Blood clotting

Front 7

B. Tissue Distribution

Back 7

1. Skeleton-crystallized, non-exchangeable bone
2. Exchangeable bone
3. Blood, tissue fluids-plasma Ca is 50% free ion

Front 8

Ca2+ Homeostasis

Back 8

1. Absorption – both facilitated and active
2. Excretion – urine, sweat, feces
3. Ca-regulatory hormones
– PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol
4. Blood Ca2+ control
5. Signs of Hypocalcemia: tetany (“milk fever”, “parturient paresis”)

Front 9

D. Dietary calcium deficiency

Back 9

1. Calcium to Phosphorus ratio is not very important but Ca should exceed P

2. Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
• Big Head Disease
• Distorted snout

3. Signs of Diet Deficiency
a. Rickets – failure of bone mineralization while growing
b. Osteomalacia – poor mineralization or mineral loss in an adult (adult-onset rickets)
c. Osteoporosis – loss of mineral coupled with loss of bone protein matrix

Front 10

E. Ca Requirement:

Back 10

.2 - 4%

Front 11

G. Ca in feedstuffs

Back 11

1. Legume forages-high in Ca; grains-low
2. mineral supplements:
3. animal byproducts: meat and bone meal, fishmeal

Front 12

Phosphorus Functions

Back 12

1. Bone formation (with Ca2+, Vit D)
2. Energy metabolism (ATP)
3. Regulatory molecules - Protein kinase and phosphatases
4. Blood or intracellular buffers (pK of phosphate is 6.8) HPO4-2 ↔ H2PO4-1 pK = 6.8
5. Role in reproduction ?

Front 13

C. Phosphourous Homeostasis

Back 13

1. Absorption
2. Excretion
3. Regulatory hormones: PTH, calcitriol

Front 14

D. Deficiency signs for P

Back 14

1. Rickets
2. Osteomalacia
3. Osteoporosis
4. Pica: abnormal appetite
5. Reduced fertility in cattle and sheep

Front 15

P requirements

Back 15

.15 - .5%

Front 16

P toxicity

Back 16

• not a problem, but too much P can increase requirement for Ca
• too much P – environmental concern

Front 17

G. Phosphorus in feedstuffs

Back 17

1. Grains - well supplied with P, but 60% is in phytate form
• Phytate, phytic acid, phytin - can be made available with use of enzyme phytase
- phytate forms chelates with other minerals and can cause other deficiencies
- phytase -- may help decrease P in animal wastes (esp. aquaculture)
- read pages 172-173 of text; see Figure 11.6
2. Forages – often need some P supplementation
3. Supplemental Sources: (often the most expensive mineral to supplement)
• most common form = Dicalcium phosphate
• Monosodium phoshpate
• Steamed bone meal, Deflourinated rock phosphate

Front 18

Magnesium Functions:

Back 18

1. Enzyme cofactor (mitochondrial ATP metabolism, protein synthesis)
2. Bone formation
3. Ionized mineral in some tissues

Front 19

Mg deficiency signs

Back 19

1. Grass Tetany orstaggers: hypomagnesence tetany
2. Unthrifty animals, poor performance, anorexia

Front 20

Mg requirement

Back 20

~0.2%

Front 21

Mg toxicity

Back 21

at ~0.4%  alters Ca, P metabolism, causes diarrhea

Front 22

Mg sources

Back 22

1. Widely spread in nature; abundant but bioavailability of dietary Mg can be low
2. Dolomite Limestone (high in Mg, this can be a problem)
3. Most common supplements: Mg oxide, Mg Sulfate

Front 23

Sodium, Potassium, Chloride Functions

Back 23

1. Osmoregulation --cellular integrity - gives structure to cells

2. Acid Base Balance: Na+, K+, Cl-, HC03-

3. Ion transport and conduction --- Na - K - ATPase (Pump)

Front 24

Sodium, Potassium, Chloride tissue distribution

Back 24

1. Na+ Major extracellular cation
2. K+ Major intracellular cation
3. Cl- Major extracellular anion

Front 25

Sodium, Potassium, Chloride deficiencies

Back 25

1. signs of deficiency
• general malaise, unthrifty
• poor osmotic regulation-dehydrated
• no clear signs of electrolyte deficiencies
2. occurrence of deficiencies:
• heat stress
• strenuous exercise
• diarrhea

Front 26

Sodium, Potassium, Chloride requirements

Back 26

• K: 0.3 - 1%
• Na: 0.1 - 0.2%
• Cl: 0.1 - 0.25%

Front 27

G. Electrolytes in feeds

Back 27

1. Potassium
• low in cereal grains
• high in most Michigan forages
• can be supplemented with KCl

2. Sodium and Chloride
• low in most feeds, but high in some water (thumb of MI)
• easily supplemented with salt (NaCl), which is 40% Na, 60% Cl

Front 28

Sulfur Functions

Back 28

1. Component of many organic compounds, and hence functions in protein, lipid, and CHO metabolism, connective tissue and blood clotting

2. Minor role in acid-base balance

Front 29

B. Deficiency signs for S

Back 29

• Inorganic S is not required by animal tissues but S-containing AA and vitamins are required. Lack of these will depress growth.

Front 30

S requirement

Back 30

Requirement: 0.1 - 0.2%

Toxic at 0.4% - 0.5%

Front 31

E. Sources of sulfur

Back 31

1. S-containing AA and S-containing vitamins
2. In general, if protein requirement is met, S requirement will be met
3. Supplemental Sources: CaSO4 (gypsum) for ruminants fed NPN
rule of thumb: add 1 part gypsum per 5 parts urea

Front 32

Copper (Cu2+, Cu+) Function

Back 32

• Cofactor in many enzymes
• Mitochondrial electron transport
• Maintenance of connective tissue and blood vessels
• Bone formation, connective tissue integrity/cross-linking
• Integrity of central nervous system (CNS)
• Red cell formation

Front 33

Copper Absorption and Metabolism

Back 33

not very efficient, stored with copper containing proteins, especially in the liver

Front 34

Copper deficiency

Back 34

• Anemia
• Ataxia, nervous degeneration (Swayback, Falling disease)
• Degeneration of blood vessels -- spontaneous bursting of the aorta (Poultry)
• Depigmentation (Melanin synthesis)
• Diarrhea, abnormal joint-ligament/cartilage impairment
• Steely wool

Front 35

copper requirement

Back 35

3 - 10 ppm

Front 36

copper toxicity

Back 36

toxic at 25 - 100 ppm, but differs with species Tolerance ratio = 5:1
-- hemolytic crisis (hemolysis, jaundice, and death)

Front 37

iron function

Back 37

• Hemoglobin and myoglobin: O2 transport and availability
• Electron transport chain in the mitochondria (cytochromes)
• Metalloenzymes

Front 38

Iron absoprtion

Back 38

• Absorption is not efficient, but iron is recycled efficiently in the body
• Stored in Ferritin, Transferrin, Myoglobin, Fe-proteins
• Body holds on to Fe tenaciously
• Only way to lose much iron is with blood loss

Front 39

iron deficiency

Back 39

• Anemia:
• Fe-deficiency anemia: microcytic anemia  hypochromic anemia (end stage)
• Thumps/Respiratory Insufficiency
• Unthrifty, poor growth
• Susceptibility to Fe deficiency: piglets born in indoors

Front 40

6. Sources of iron

Back 40

• Bioavailabilty varies -- “heme” iron is more available than other sources and increases the absorption of non-heme iron
• Milk
• Grains, forages
• Soil
• Injections of Fe - Dextran for young pigs
• Oral supplementation

Front 41

Manganese (Mn) Function

Back 41

cofactor/activator of enzyme systems for
• Mitochondrial metabolism -- oxidative phosphorylation
• formation of organic matrix of bone
• protein, fatty acid, and cholesterol metabolism

Front 42

Mn deficiency

Back 42

• Poultry - perosis (slipped tendon)
• CNS - degeneration - ataxia
• Bone malformation

Front 43

Zinc Functions

Back 43

• Metallo enzymes --- cofactor/activator of several enzyme systems
• Nucleic acid proteins

Front 44

Zinc deficiency

Back 44

• Poor appetite, growth retardation, poor fertility
• Pigs: parakeratosis-thickening of epithelial cells
• Poultry - hyperkeratosis

Front 45

5. Zinc sources

Back 45

• Forages have plenty, grains are low
• TM salt

Front 46

cobalt function

Back 46

component of vitamin B12 so bacteria need it to make B12

Front 47

cobalt deficiency

Back 47

• Lack of appetite, tissue wasting, anemia
• Improper propionic acid metabolism
• Particular problem in northern Michigan: Grand Traverse Disease

Front 48

Iodine function

Back 48

Synthesis of thyroid hormones ---- T4 (Thyroxine) and T3 (tri-iodo-thyronine)
- structure of thyroxin is on page 189 of text

Front 49

iodine deficiency

Back 49

• Hypothyroidism --- impaired energy metabolism -- lowered metabolic rate
• Deficiency in maternal diet causes stillbirths and weak, hairless neonate
• Deficiency in adult causes goiter (enlarged thyroid gland)

Front 50

Selenium functions

Back 50

• Antioxidant: component of glutathione peroxidase
• involved in Vitamin E metabolism
• Many selenoproteins and metalloenzymes (see Table 12.7 of text)

Front 51

Se Toxicity

Back 51

toxic at 2-5 ppm Tolerance ratio = 10:1
• Alkali disease
• Blind staggers
• Can counteract with arsenic

Front 52

6. Sources of Se

Back 52

• TM salt
• Special premixes (Se-200 is 200 mg/kg = 200 ppm)
• Injectable Se, by prescription only

Front 53

Molybdenum (Mo) Function

Back 53

Unclear, but needed in xanthine oxidase (also needed in plants)

Front 54

Mo Toxicity

Back 54

occurs at ~6 ppm
• occurs commonly with organic soils with high pH
• Interferes with Cu metabolism
• Diarrhea (Profuse and Stinky!) – “peat scours”, “teart scours”
• Depressed growth, emaciation

Front 55

Fluorine

Back 55

deficiency or toxicity causes chalky, mottled teeth
added to drinking water for humans in the US to prevent dental cavies (tooth decay)

Front 56

• Chelated minerals

Back 56

have increased bioavailability but usually not worth the added expense
-natural chelates

Front 57

• Vitamin A precursor

Back 57

• Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in the small intestine or liver

Front 58

• Vitamin D precursors

Back 58

• Ergosterol  uv light  ergocalciferol

• Cholesterol  7-dehyrocholesterol  cholecalciferol

Front 59

• Activation of vitamin D

Back 59

Calciferol  25-hydroxycalciferol  1,25-dihydroxycalciferol

Front 60

Vitamin Stability

Back 60

• many vitamins are susceptible to one of the following:
• heat (eg.: folic acid)
• light (eg.: riboflavin)
• oxidation (eg.: vitamin E)
• some just gradually degrade in solution (vitamin C)
• some of the more stable ones are niacin, thiamin, pantothenic acid

Front 61

Vitamin bioavailibility

Back 61

• availability of fat-soluble vitamins is increased by fat in the diet
• sometimes, some vitamins are tightly bound to plant other compounds and not very available (eg.: niacin in corn)

Front 62

Antioxidant

Back 62

Selenium and Vitamin E: the major antioxidants
• Lipid peroxides result in harmful “free radicals” that damage cells.
• Vitamin E (fat soluble) prevents formation of lipid peroxides.
• Se is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase (water soluble), an enzyme that destroys lipid peroxides once they form.
• During marginal Vitamin E status, adequate Se is more critical than during good Vitamin E status.

Front 63

Other compounds with anti-oxidant properties

Back 63

• carotene (fat-soluble)
• other carotenoids: lycopene in tomatoes, watermelon
• vitamin C (water-soluble).
• other phenolic compounds
• flavonoids (also plant pigments)
o procyanidins in dark chocolate
o proanthocyanidins in grapes, cranberries
o catechin in tea
o resveratrol in grapes/red wine

Front 64

A

Back 64

-Vision (requires retinol or retinal; retinoic acid does not help)

-Maintenance of epithelial cells (lining of digestive, repro tracts)

-Growth

-Bone formation


Night Blindness

Epithelial cell degeneration

Calf scours

Lusterless skin Green forages
Dehy-alfalfa
Fish oils
Vit A acetate or palmitate

Front 65

D

Back 65

-Bone formation-mineralization

-Ca absorption from the gut Osteomalacia-softening of bone (adult onset rickets, loss of minerals)

Osteoporosis-loss of bone mass (both mineral and organic matter)

Rickets-poor bone mineralization in young

Posterior paralysis in sows
Soft egg shells Plant products containing Ergosterol
Animal products containing cholest.
A-D feeding oil

Front 66

E

Back 66

-Anti-oxidant (lipid-soluble)-need more vitamin E with dients that are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

-protects vitamin A against oxidation

-muscle structure/color
-reproduction


Muscle degeneration-white muscle disease

Liver necrosis-damaged membranes

Encephalomalacia-softening of the brain
-ataxia-incoordination, paralysis

Exudative diathesis-sores d
Green growing plants, wheat germ oil,
alpha-tocopherol

Front 67

K

Back 67

Hemorrhaging -
prolonged clotting time Menadione
(only needed in poultry)