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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 2 major components of blood? |
Plasma and formed elements. |
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What is plasma? |
The liquid portion of blood that composes 55% of blood vol |
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What are formed elements? |
The cellular portion of blood that composes 45% of blood vol |
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What is the composition of plasma? |
91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% hormones, nutrients, ions, metabolic products, and gases |
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What are the most common proteins contained in plasma? |
Albumins, globins, and fibrinogen |
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What is the function of the protein fibrinogen? |
Blood clotting |
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What is the composition of cellular elements? |
99% erythrocytes and <1% leukocytes and platelets |
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What are some advantages for an erythrocyte to have a biconcave shape? |
Shape increases surface area and flexibility of the cell |
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What do mammalian erythrocytes lack? |
Mammalian erythrocytes lack a nucleus and mitochondira |
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What organs take red blood cells out of circulation? |
Broken down by spleen into cellular fragments |
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Process of Hemoglobin breakdown |
Hemoglobin -> globin sub-units -> amino acids |
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Characteristics of leukocytes |
nucleated, contain organelles, capable of ameboid movement, and involved in immune process |
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What are agranular leukocytes? |
Lymphocytes and monocytes |
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What are granular leukocytes? |
Eosinphils, basophils, and neutrophils |
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What do percentage of white blood cells are eosinophils? |
~2-4% of white blood cells |
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What kind of nucleus do eosinophils have? |
Lobed nucleus |
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What do eosinophils contain/release? |
Eosinophils release hydrolytic enzymes, primarily histamine |
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What kind of nucleus do basophils have? |
A lobed nucleus |
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How are granules in basophils identified? |
Granules are dark staining |
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What do the granules of basophils release? |
Basophil granules release vasoactive substances |
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What are the most common white blood cells by composition? |
Neutrophils (60-80%) |
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What kind of nucleus do neutrophils have? |
Neutrophils are polymorphonucleate |
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Function of neutrophils? |
First line of defense, more phagocytic than other white blood cells, and release defensins |
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What are the second most common type of white blood cells found in humans? |
Lymphocytes (~20-25%) |
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What process are B and T Lymphocytes involved in? |
Specific immunity |
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What do B-Lymphocytes give rise to? |
Give rise to plasma cells that secrete antibodies |
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What do T-Lymphocytes give rise to? |
Give rise to helper T-lymphocytes, suppressor T-lymphocytes, and cytotoxic lymphocytes |
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What percentage of white blood cells are monocytes? |
~2-6% |
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Lifespan of monocytes? |
Months to years |
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What do monocytes develop into when they enter the tissue? |
Monocytes develop into macrophages |
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Function of macrophages? |
Phagocytosis of cellular debris from normal turnover of cells. Protect body from bacterial infection. |
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Are platelets true cells? |
No. They are fragments of a cell. |
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How do platelets form? |
Form from cytoplasm of megakaryocytes |
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Function of platelets? |
Release chemicals involved in blood clotting/coagulation |
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What is the process of hemopoesis? |
Creation/generation of red blood cells |
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What is a hemocytoblast? |
A primitive cell that gives rise to other blood cells |
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What determines the what type of blood cell a hemocytoblast forms into? |
How hemocytoblast is stimulated |
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Where does hemopoesis of red blood cells and platelets occur? |
Mainly in red bone marrow |
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Where does lymphocyte homepoesis take place in? |
Mainly in lymphatic tissue (thymus, spleen, tonsils, lymph nodes) |
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What is hemostasis? |
The cessation of bleeding (blood clotting) |
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What are the steps involved in hemostasis? |
1. formation of platelet plug, 2. vascular spasm, 3. coagulation |
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What is vascular spasm? |
Local vasoconstriction |
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What is von Willebrand factor? |
A sticky substance that coats the exposed collagen fibers and is essential in the aggregation of platelets |
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What secretes von Willebrand factor? |
The subendothelial cells |
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What is primary platelet aggregation? |
Platelets and other blood cells are entrapped by the von Willebrand factor |
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What is the platelet release reaction? |
The entrapped platelets release various chemicals at wound site |
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What kinds of chemicals are released during platelet release reaction? |
Serotonin (vasoconstriction), thromboxane A2 (vasoconstriction), ADP (further platelet aggregation) |
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What is involved in secondary platelet aggregation? |
Platelets release ADP which allows for further aggregation of cellular elements at wound site |
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What is coagulation? |
A series of enzymatic reactions that results in the formation of fibrin at the plug which stiffens it |
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What is the intrinsic pathway of coagulation? |
Coagulation is initiated by factors inside the blood vessel (blood, essentially) |
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What is the extrinsic pathway of coagulation? |
Coagulation is initiated by factors outside of the blood vessel |
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What is fibrinolysis? |
The breakdown/dissolution of the clot |
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What is plasminogen? |
An inactive enzyme present in the blood clot that forms plasmin |
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What is the function of plasmin? |
Breaks down the fibrin present in the clot, resulting in its dissolution |
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How is plasminogen activated? |
Mainly tissue plasminogen activator, but also cytofibrokinase, staphlokinase, streptokinase, urokinase |
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What are anticoagulants? |
Chemicals that prevent coagulation |
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What is the function of divalent chelators? |
Anticoagulants that will bind to any ion with a 2+ charge (mainly Ca involved in coagulation) |
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What is the function of heparin? |
Anticoagulant that activates anti-thrombin 3 in the blood, preventing the formation of thrombin |
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What is the function of coumarins? |
Anticoagulant that is similar to vitamin K in structure |
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What is polycythemia? |
A condition in which too many red blood cells are in the blood |
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What is the average number of red blood cells found in humans? |
About 5 million cells/cubic mm |
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What is the average number of red blood cells found in an individual with polycythemia? |
7 million cells or greater |
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Under what conditions can polycythemia be observed? |
In oxygen poor environments or in oxygen deprived individuals |
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How is blood type determined under the ABO system? |
Blood type is determined by carbohydrates of the antigenic glycolipid |
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What is an antibody? |
A protein produced to bind to a specific antigen |
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How is blood typed using antibodies? |
Blood is exposed to the 2 antibodies (A and B agglutinins) and typed by how they react |
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What is an agglutinin? |
An antibody (specifically antigenic glycolipids) that is present in the blood and comes in an A and B variety |
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What kind of agglutinins (antibodies) are present in the plasma of individuals with type A blood? |
B agglutinins |
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What kind of agglutinins (antibodies) are present in the plasma of individuals with type B blood? |
A agglutinins |
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What kind of agglutinogens are present on the RBC of an individual with type A blood? |
A agglutinogens |
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What kind of agglutinogens are present on the RBC of an individual with type B blood? |
B agglutinogens |
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Are there any agglutinins present in the plasma of individuals with type AB blood? |
No. AB individuals have no agglutinins present in their plasma because they have both A and B agglutinogens present on their RBCs |
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What is the RH factor? |
An antigen present on the surface of red blood cells |
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What percentage of the human population carries the RH factor? |
~85% |
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What percentage of the human population does not carry the RH factor? |
~15% |
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If an individual has the RH factor, how is it denoted? |
RH positive |
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If an individual lacks the RH factor, how is it denoted? |
RH negative |
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When an individual is heterozygous for the RH condition, how will their genotype be expressed on a phenotypic level? |
The individual will be RH positive |
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What is erythroblastosis fetalis? |
A condition in which a mother's immune system creates antibodies in response to the fetal RH factor (i.e. the fetus is RH- and the mother is RH+) |
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What does erythroblastosis fetalis cause? |
Hemolytic anemia |
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In a case where erythroblastosis is a possibility, what is administered to the mother to nullify the immune response? |
Rho-Gam |
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What does Rho-Gam do to fetal RBC's? |
It binds to them, which prevent's the mother's immune system from recognizing it. Therefore, antibodies are not produced. |
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What is anemia? |
A lack of RBC's and/or Hemoglobin |
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What most commonly causes nutritious anemia? |
Lack of iron in the diet and/or poor absorption of iron from the digestive tract. |
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What causes pernicious anemia? |
It is caused by the inability of the stomach to to secrete intrinsic factor, therefore reducing the amount of vitamin B12 needed for erythrocyte production. |
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What is intrinsic factor necessary for? |
The absorption of vitamin B12 |
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What is vitamin B12 necessary for? |
The production of erythrocytes |
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What causes aplastic anemia? |
Destruction of bone marrow |
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What can cause the destruction of bone marrow and lead to aplastic anemia? |
Interactions with benzene, low levels of arsenic, nitrogen mustard gas, and any ionizing radiation. |
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What causes hemolytic anemia? |
It is caused by the rupture of RBC's due to anitgen-antibody incompatibility. In addition, it can be caused by defective hemoglobin and parasitic infections. |
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What causes hemorrhagic anemia? |
Extreme blood loss due to wounds, bleeding ulcers, heavy menstruation, etc. |
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What is the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) |
It is the average volume of erythrocytes in a blood sample. |
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What formula is used to calculate MCV? |
((%RBC's)x10)/RBC count (millions per mm cubed blood) |
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What is the normal range for MCV? |
82-92 micrometers cubed |
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What is the average MCV? |
87 micrometers cubed |
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What is the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC%) |
The ratio of the weight of the hemoglobin to the volume of the erythrocyte in a blood sample. |
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What formula is used to calculate MCHC%? |
([Hemoglobin](g/dl)x100)/(% RBC's) |
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What is the normal range for MCHC? |
32-36% |
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What is the average value for MCHC? |
34% |
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Based on MCV, how is macrocytic anemia characterized? |
MCV > 94 micrometers cubed |
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What causes macrocytic anemia? |
Vitamin B12 deficiency and/or folic acid deficiency |
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Based on MCV and MCHC, how is microcytic hypochromic anemia characterized? |
MCV < 82 micrometers cubed, MCHC% < 32% |
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What causes microcytic hypochromic anemia? |
Lack of iron |
