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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Self-serving attribution |
We attribute positive outcomes to our doing (effort/ability) and negative ones to others |
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Self-handicapping |
preemptive behavior providing an excuse for failure and thus protecting self-esteem. sabotages chance of success |
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Self-appraisals |
What I think others think about me |
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Self-serving cognitions |
our need to view ourselves positively leads to view the world in a manner that reinforces high self-esteem |
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Ego depletion |
we only have a few cognitive resources to draw from |
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Self-discrepancy theory |
we compare ourselves to our ideal and ought self. Low arousal when there is discrepancy |
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Failures of self-regulation |
low motivation energy runs out didn't detect discrepancy in time poor strategy for correcting discrep. |
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Confirmation bias |
tending to seek out info that will verify our existing beliefs |
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Belief perseverance |
maintaining beliefs even after they have been discredited |
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Attractiveness heuristic |
what is attractive is good... |
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Causal attributions |
how we explain other's behavior |
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covariation principle |
we weigh potential causes of behavior based on consensus and distinctiveness |
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Consensus |
whether the behavior in question is something other people would do |
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distinctiveness |
what the same person has done in other situations |
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discounting principle |
less weight given to cause of behavior if there are other plausible alternative causes |
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augmentation principle |
more weight given to cause if other potential causes would have produced an opposite result |
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fundamental attribution error |
the tendency to focus on internal causes and underestimate the influence of the situation on behavior |
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perpetual salience |
people make attributions to causes that are most obvious (salient) |
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actor-observer difference |
the actor tends to explain their own behaviordue to the situation the observer tends to explain the actors behavior based on their own personal qualities |
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self-enhancing attributions |
bad outcomes are not my fault good outcomes are all me |
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self-verification theory |
people desire stability and predictability in the world. Enhanced when others view things in ourselves the same way! |
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self-verification |
when people attempt to recall, accept feedback that is consistent with our self-concept |
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Relationship status
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if rejection possible: self-enhancement if rejection low: self-verification |
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dimensions of judgement |
if feelings at stake: self-enhancement if accuracy important: self-verification |
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Emotions |
brief, psychological and physiological responses that function to help us reach our goals |
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Evolutionary perspective |
emotions are biologically based adaptations to promote survival and reproduction |
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Universality Hypothesis |
basic expression of emotion will be similar across place and time |
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Appraisal theory |
emotions defined by ones appraisal (or evaluation of the situations particularly with regard to how it influences goals and well-being) |
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Immune neglect |
tendency to underestimate ones resilience "psychological immune system we have) |
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Focalism |
tendency to focus on only one aspect of an experience or even when predicting future emotion |
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Attitudes |
positive or negative evaluations of an object person/place/thing/concept 1.Affect 2.Cognitions 3.Behavior |
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Negativity Bias |
people weigh negative info more strongly |
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Why have attitudes? |
Utilitarian Value-expressive Knowledge Ego-Defensive |
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Terror Management Theory |
When we are reminded we are gonna die it produces an existential anxiety, which motivates a desire for "immortality" with support from culture and institutions |
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Causes of behavior |
Physiology social norms attitudes habits situation |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
the feeling of unease that comes when theres a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior 1. insufficient justification 2.perceieved free choice 3.negative consequences 4. foreseeability |
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Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) |
there are two routes to how we process info |
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Central route |
change attitudes through deliberation and reasoning (elaboration). logical, high attention/comprehension |
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Peripheral route |
Quick and easy, using heuristics |
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3 components of persuasion attempt |
Who Said what to whom. aka. Source, Content, Receiver |
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sleeper effect |
learn information from a reliable source that won't immediately affect us, but will change our attitudes in time |
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Psychological reactance theory |
freedom > resistance > behavior to restore freedom threat> resistance> psychological discomfort |
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Thought polarization hypothesis |
longer and more often an attitude is examined the more extreme it is |
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Attitude inoculation |
successfully defending against a persuasion attempt, strengthening attitude and making it more resistant to change |
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Social Influence |
Changing attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors in the real or imagined presence of others |
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Conformity |
behavior in line with others in the absence of a request |
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Ideomotor |
seeing behavior activates same behavior pattern in brain |
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Positives of automatic mimicry |
perspective shifting affiliation goals interdependent self-concept |
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negatives of automatic mimicry |
other person is disliked other person has visible social stigma |
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Normative influence |
to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval |
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informational social influence |
conformity based on desire to be accurate, looking to others for answers |
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Factors reducing conformity |
1. Anonymity 2. Lack of internalization of norm (normative won't continue if norm not internal) 3. Clear explanation of behavior 4. Low expertise or status (experts exert more informational influence , high status exert more normative) 5. "Loose" culture (lower normative conformity, tolerate deviance) 6. Lack of unanimity (normative dramatically decreased if just one person breaks with the group) |
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Social Norm |
customary rule of behavior |
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descriptive |
what is done |
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prescriptive |
what society thinks we should do |
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Compliance |
changing your behavior in the response to a direct request |
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Door-in-the-face technique |
make large request expected to be refused, followed by a smaller request (reflecting the norm of reciprocity (when people give us something we expect to give something back) and social norm of commitment (we like to do what we say we're going to) |
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low-balling |
we had an agreement you can't back out (perception of free-will important |
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Subjective Standards Argument |
Beauty is not objective or universal, but depends on time and place, ex. percepts of attractiveness depend on time and plac |
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mere exposure effect |
if we spend more time around someone we warm up to them. familiar people more attractive
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misattribution of arousal |
excitation transfer, leading to perception that another person is more attractive if the arousal is attributed to that person |
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proximity effect |
birds of a feather flock together |
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matching hypothesis |
we like people who match in physical attractiveness |
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Gender differences in Evolutionary Theory |
Females are more selective about mating Males less |
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Benefits of close relationships |
Resources Companionships Security |
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Costs of close relationships |
Being your own person Meeting others |
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Comparison level |
what people think they deserve or expect in a relationship (for alternatives, what they think they get in another relationship) |
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Social Exchange Theory |
satisfaction comes from relationships in which we will benefit the most and cost the least |
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Equity Theory |
satisfaction comes from relationships in which our ratio benefits costs are equal |
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communal orientation |
people in a relationship expect and desire mutual responsiveness |
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Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love |
Intimacy Passion Commitment All three equally consummate love |
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Passion |
intense state of wanting and longing for another person; sexual desire; obsessiveness, euphoria & despair Just in Infatuation |
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Initmacy |
Psychological closeness; high self-disclosure Just is Liking |
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Commitment |
the force that keeps partners in an enduring relationship, trust, availability, interdependence. Just is Empty Love |
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Romantic Love |
physical + emotional (passion + intimacy) |
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Companionate Love |
committed friendship without passion (intimacy and commitment) |
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Fatuous Love |
commitment used on passion with little understanding (passion and commitment) |
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Institutional Marriage |
1700s-1800s: for food production, shelter, and procreation |
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Companionate Marriage |
1850-1965: Companionship, to love and be loved, a fulfilling sex life |
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Self-expressive marriage |
1965- Present: self-discovery, self-esteem, personal growth, an "elective" means |
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Negative Self-disclosure |
decrease in both depth and variety |
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Distress maintaining attributions |
negative partner behaviors - attributed to internal, stable, and global factors positive partner behaviors - are attributed to external unstable/specific factors |
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4 horsemen of the relationships apocalypse |
Criticism: blaming, insulting, attack of character Defensiveness: not taking responsibility Contempt: mocking/superiority. I know what your going to say.., sarcasm, erodes immune system, single biggest predictor Stonewalling: non confrontational/disengaging |
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Stereotypes |
beliefs about a social group and its members |
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Prejudice |
Evaluations of a social group and its members |
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Discrimination |
Behaviors based on social group membership |
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Socio-cultural perspective on Intergroup Bias |
bias and media generational |
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Economic perspective on Intergroup Bias
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Realistic group Conflict Theory, based on conflict over resources (land, jobs, education, political power). prejudice strongest in groups that "stand to lose the most". Increases in economically hard times |
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Motivational perspective on Intergroup Bias |
Social Identity Theory (a.k.a Us vs. Them) IET test (implicit attitudes test) make sure our in-groups are positive |
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Cognitive perspective on Intergroup Bias
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Implicit Bias Categorization minimal group studies |
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ethnocentrism |
glorifying own group while vilifying other groups |
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motivation perspective |
discriminations, etc. resulting from motivation to maintain positive social identity |
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Minimal group paradigm |
people confer benefits on in group members over out group members |
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Perceptions |
experience + expectations + cues |
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Categorization |
An object gains meaning through categorization, because it is assumed to have the attributes associated with the category
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Social Facilitation |
when the mere presence of others, benefits (or harms particular performance on a particular task through increased arousal |
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Social Loafing |
the tendency to induce less effort when contributions are pooled (individuals not identified) |
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Deindividuation |
decrease in self awareness, which results in reduced self-regulation and greater conformity to situational norms |
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Groupthink |
poor decision-making due to isolation and emphasis on group cohesion, instead of accuracy
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Group polarization |
the exaggeration of initial ideas by group members after group discussion |
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Persuasive arguments theory |
Exposure to more and better arguments on the same side (biased-sampling)
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Social Comparison Theory |
Desire to positively distinguish oneself in the group context (one-upping)
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Self-fulfilling Prophecy |
process by which one's expectations of a person cause that person to behave in a way that confirms those expectations |
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attributional ambiguity |
uncertainty about whether the treatment one receives is due to personal attributes or group membership |
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Stereotype threat |
prevalent negative stereotypes about one's group creates concern about being viewed in terms of the stereotype and anxiety about the stereotype in the eyes of others |
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Mere Presence Theory |
1. Mere presence increases arousal, which improves performance on easy tasks but interferes with performance on difficult tasks 2. Evaluation Apprehension 3.Distraction-Conflict Theory |
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Evaluation Apprehension |
Presence of people raises concerns about evaluation that increases arousal |
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Distraction-Conflict Theory |
presence of people increases attentional conflict that increases arousal |
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hostile aggression |
(hot): inflicting harm for its own sake |
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instrumental aggression |
(cold): inflicting harm as a way to obtain something else |
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factors influencing aggression |
Biological Cognitive Situational Factors Socialization |
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Dehumanization |
the attribution of non-human characteristics and denial of human qualities in others |
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Culture of honor |
a culture places value on honor pride and reputation, high in masculinity |
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2 motivations for helping |
egoistic motivation - benefit yourself altruistic motiv - benefit others w/o regard to yourself |
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Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis |
People can be altruistically motivated to help if…They take the other person’s perspective -- “What does he/she need?”They feel empathic concern, not personal distress
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Empathy |
Sympathy, compassion, and tenderness; focusing on the other person’s needs.
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Distress |
feeling alarmed, troubled, or upset; focusing on one’s own feelings
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Kinship Selection Hypothesis |
People help genetic relatives to ensure common genes survive |
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Reciprocal Altruism Hypothesis |
help those likely to reciprocate the help |
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5 Step Model of Helping (Latane & Darley) |
1. Notice an Event 2. Interpret it as a Problem 3. Take Responsibility 4. Decide how to help 5. Provide Help Helping only occurs if all 5 steps met! |
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Diffusion of responsibility |
belief that others will or should take responsibility for providing assistance |
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Audience inhibition |
reluctance to help in fear of making a bad impression on others |
