Universities have been attempting to control the use of performance enhancing drugs on their campuses in an attempt to promote fairness and equality. In the past, universities have been focused on halting the widening use of steroids by college athletes, specifically football players, who were looking to gain a competitive advantage by rapidly gaining muscle mass (Apuzzo, Gillum, & Goldman, 2012). However, as our society has become more technologically oriented and the academic environment has become more competitive, universities have been witnessing a shift from the abuse of physical enhancement drugs to mental enhancement drugs. Abuse is defined as the use of a drug outside of its intended purpose.
Students have turned to drugs to help improve their mental capabilities in order to meet the increasing demands of a college education and gain an academic advantage over rival students. The combination of increasing pressure on college students and easy access to drugs via online networks has made it easy for college students to abuse mental enhancement drugs (Moore, Burgard, Larson, & Ferm, 2014). The stimulant or smart drug that has seen the most abuse on college campuses is Adderall (Burgard, Fuller, Becker, Ferrell, & Dinglasan-Panlilio, 2013). The purpose of this literature research review article is to examine the current state of Adderall abuse amongst college students in the United States and discuss its future implications. History of Adderall Adderall is a stimulant that originates from the drug Obetrol. …show more content…
The Federal Drug Administration approved Obetrol in 1960 as a weight-loss medication to treat obesity. Obetrol, however, never caught traction and eventually reached a point where it was no longer profitable enough to stay on the market (Phelan, 2006). Rexar Pharmaceuticals, manufacturer of Obetrol, sold the drug’s formula rights to Shire-Richwood in 1994. The company rebranded the drug as Adderall and got the Food and Drug Administration’s approval in 1996 to market the product as a treatment for Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy (Pelham et al., 1999). The composition of Adderall is identical to the original Obetrol form. It is comprised of four active ingredients, which each account for twenty five percent of the drug’s composition. The active ingredients in Adderall are: dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine aspartate monohydrate, dextroamphetamine sulfate, and amphetamine sulfate (Phelan, 2006). The mixture of these four amphetamine based salts is what gives Adderall its stimulant properties and makes it a good treatment for ADHD. ADHD is a chronic neurological disorder that is characterized by over activity, impulsivity, and an inability to focus (National Institute …show more content…
Amphetamines are characterized as dopamine releasers that elevate levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, the space between neurons at a nerve synapse, by four distinct mechanisms. The primary mechanism involves amphetamine acting as a substrate for dopamine transporters. The transporters are responsible for pumping dopamine out of the synaptic cleft back into the cytoplasm of presynaptic neurons. The binding of amphetamines to dopamine transporters, inhibit dopamine uptake resulting in a larger concentration of dopamine remaining in the cleft (Calipari & Ferris, 2013). The other mechanisms by which amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft are: binding of amphetamines to the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons to induce the release of dopamine from the nerve terminal; binding to monoamine oxidase to inhibit the enzymatic breakdown of cytosolic dopamine; and binding of amphetamines to dopamine re-uptake proteins in order to force the protein to act in reverse and transport dopamine out of the nerve terminal into the synaptic cleft (Ellinwood et al.,
Students have turned to drugs to help improve their mental capabilities in order to meet the increasing demands of a college education and gain an academic advantage over rival students. The combination of increasing pressure on college students and easy access to drugs via online networks has made it easy for college students to abuse mental enhancement drugs (Moore, Burgard, Larson, & Ferm, 2014). The stimulant or smart drug that has seen the most abuse on college campuses is Adderall (Burgard, Fuller, Becker, Ferrell, & Dinglasan-Panlilio, 2013). The purpose of this literature research review article is to examine the current state of Adderall abuse amongst college students in the United States and discuss its future implications. History of Adderall Adderall is a stimulant that originates from the drug Obetrol. …show more content…
The Federal Drug Administration approved Obetrol in 1960 as a weight-loss medication to treat obesity. Obetrol, however, never caught traction and eventually reached a point where it was no longer profitable enough to stay on the market (Phelan, 2006). Rexar Pharmaceuticals, manufacturer of Obetrol, sold the drug’s formula rights to Shire-Richwood in 1994. The company rebranded the drug as Adderall and got the Food and Drug Administration’s approval in 1996 to market the product as a treatment for Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy (Pelham et al., 1999). The composition of Adderall is identical to the original Obetrol form. It is comprised of four active ingredients, which each account for twenty five percent of the drug’s composition. The active ingredients in Adderall are: dextroamphetamine saccharate, amphetamine aspartate monohydrate, dextroamphetamine sulfate, and amphetamine sulfate (Phelan, 2006). The mixture of these four amphetamine based salts is what gives Adderall its stimulant properties and makes it a good treatment for ADHD. ADHD is a chronic neurological disorder that is characterized by over activity, impulsivity, and an inability to focus (National Institute …show more content…
Amphetamines are characterized as dopamine releasers that elevate levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, the space between neurons at a nerve synapse, by four distinct mechanisms. The primary mechanism involves amphetamine acting as a substrate for dopamine transporters. The transporters are responsible for pumping dopamine out of the synaptic cleft back into the cytoplasm of presynaptic neurons. The binding of amphetamines to dopamine transporters, inhibit dopamine uptake resulting in a larger concentration of dopamine remaining in the cleft (Calipari & Ferris, 2013). The other mechanisms by which amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft are: binding of amphetamines to the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons to induce the release of dopamine from the nerve terminal; binding to monoamine oxidase to inhibit the enzymatic breakdown of cytosolic dopamine; and binding of amphetamines to dopamine re-uptake proteins in order to force the protein to act in reverse and transport dopamine out of the nerve terminal into the synaptic cleft (Ellinwood et al.,