INTRODUCTION
Race relations in America has always been exceptionally antagonistic, as compared to other nations (Myrdal, 1944). The disproportional number of minorities, especially Blacks, being involved in the criminal justice system, has often been highlighted to indicate the level of racial tension in the country. In the 1970s, however, findings regarding the disproportional distribution of school punishment among Black students (see Child Defense Fund, 1975), pointed out to the fact that racial disparities and tensions are not restricted to the criminal justice system alone, rather schools too are influenced by them. Since the report in 1975, a number of researchers have attempted to study the link between race and school punishments …show more content…
For example, scholars argue that the imposition of dress codes or uniforms are used to promote conformity (Gottfredson and Gottfredson 2001; Watts and Erevelles 2004), while the use of student ID badges is to facilitate immediate identification of wrongdoers and to deter future misconduct (Beger 2002; Brooks et al. 1999). Today, with over 80 percent of schools using surveillance methods (Dinkes, Kemp, and Baum 2009), the use of police officers, surveillance cameras, zero-tolerance polies, and the use of sniffer dogs are common sights among urban schools (Beger 2002; Devoe et al. 2005; Giroux 2003; Hirschfield 2008; Watts and Erevelles 2004). In 2003-2004, studies found that drug-sniffing dogs were used by 58.6 percent of public high schools (Dinkes et al., 2006), while a recent national survey found that 60 percent of high school teachers reported having armed police in their schools (Public Agenda, …show more content…
In 2010, more than 3 million children were estimated to have been suspended from school (Losen and Gillespie 2012). Further, the adoptions of such policies, have resulted in schools responding to violations in behavioral codes with in-school suspension, out-school suspension, and expulsions (Brooks et al. 1999; Fantz 2008; Giroux 2003; Kupchik and Monahan 2006), at a higher frequency. Additionally, zero tolerance policies mandate schools to have written policies detailing: ‘a) its internal procedures, b) clear conditions under which exclusion will be imposed, and c) close cooperation with police and juvenile justice agencies’ (Simon, 2007: 218), in order for the school to receive federal money. In response, many schools have created rules whereby students who commit certain acts, such as possessing weapons, alcohol or drugs, are suspended or expelled, regardless of the severity of the act (Skiba, 2000; Reyes, 2006; Simon, 2007). Such practices have been found to facilitate a ‘school-to-prison pipeline’ (Skiba, et al.,
Race relations in America has always been exceptionally antagonistic, as compared to other nations (Myrdal, 1944). The disproportional number of minorities, especially Blacks, being involved in the criminal justice system, has often been highlighted to indicate the level of racial tension in the country. In the 1970s, however, findings regarding the disproportional distribution of school punishment among Black students (see Child Defense Fund, 1975), pointed out to the fact that racial disparities and tensions are not restricted to the criminal justice system alone, rather schools too are influenced by them. Since the report in 1975, a number of researchers have attempted to study the link between race and school punishments …show more content…
For example, scholars argue that the imposition of dress codes or uniforms are used to promote conformity (Gottfredson and Gottfredson 2001; Watts and Erevelles 2004), while the use of student ID badges is to facilitate immediate identification of wrongdoers and to deter future misconduct (Beger 2002; Brooks et al. 1999). Today, with over 80 percent of schools using surveillance methods (Dinkes, Kemp, and Baum 2009), the use of police officers, surveillance cameras, zero-tolerance polies, and the use of sniffer dogs are common sights among urban schools (Beger 2002; Devoe et al. 2005; Giroux 2003; Hirschfield 2008; Watts and Erevelles 2004). In 2003-2004, studies found that drug-sniffing dogs were used by 58.6 percent of public high schools (Dinkes et al., 2006), while a recent national survey found that 60 percent of high school teachers reported having armed police in their schools (Public Agenda, …show more content…
In 2010, more than 3 million children were estimated to have been suspended from school (Losen and Gillespie 2012). Further, the adoptions of such policies, have resulted in schools responding to violations in behavioral codes with in-school suspension, out-school suspension, and expulsions (Brooks et al. 1999; Fantz 2008; Giroux 2003; Kupchik and Monahan 2006), at a higher frequency. Additionally, zero tolerance policies mandate schools to have written policies detailing: ‘a) its internal procedures, b) clear conditions under which exclusion will be imposed, and c) close cooperation with police and juvenile justice agencies’ (Simon, 2007: 218), in order for the school to receive federal money. In response, many schools have created rules whereby students who commit certain acts, such as possessing weapons, alcohol or drugs, are suspended or expelled, regardless of the severity of the act (Skiba, 2000; Reyes, 2006; Simon, 2007). Such practices have been found to facilitate a ‘school-to-prison pipeline’ (Skiba, et al.,