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200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Socrates and Plato
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philosophers who believed that the mind is separate from the body and exists after death and that knowledge and ideas are innate
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aristotle
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philosopher who believed that the soul is not separable from the body and that knowledge is not preexisting but comes from experience
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tabula rasa
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theory of john locke that our mind is a blank slate
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wilhelm wundt and strucuralism
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scientist who set up the 1st experiment in leipzig, germany in 1879; early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the mind
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william james
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opposed structuralism and founded functionalism; wrote principles of psychology
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functionalism
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school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
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mary calkins
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1st woman to study psychology at harvard; denied a PhD; 1st female president of the APA
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Sigmund Freud
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Austrian physician and famed personality therapist and theorist whose controversial ideas influenced humanity's self-understanding
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psychoanalysis
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freud's theory that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
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behaviorism
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scientific study of observable behavior; behavior conditioned by experience
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humanism
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emphasizes growth potential and needs for love and acceptance for healthy people
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cognitive psychology
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school with interest in mental processes and how our mind processes and retains info
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nature vs. nurture debate
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longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
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limits of intuition
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people tend to think they understand something until asked to explain it; naked intellect is extraordinarily inaccurate
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errors of common sense
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we are all wise after the fact; presuming that we could have foreseen what happened
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hindsight bias
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tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; "i knew it all along"
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overconfidence
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we tend to think that we know more than we actually do
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psychology
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scientific study of behavioral and mental processes
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scientific attitude
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combination of curiosity, skepticism, and genuine humility
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good critical thinkers
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examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
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critical thinking
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does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
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theory
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explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
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hypothesis
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testable prediction often implied by a theory
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biases in research--cultural, gender, value
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we often see what we want to see; behavior varies with culture, gender, and ethics
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case study
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observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
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clinical study
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a therapist investigates the problems of a client or patient
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survey
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technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample
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wording effects
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subtle changes in wording can bring about major changes in the results of a survey
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false consensus effect
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tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
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random sampling
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sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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naturalistic observation
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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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correlation coefficient
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statistical measure of a relationship that reveals how closely two things vary together and thus how well either one predicts the other
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positive correlation
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two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together
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negative correlation
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two things relate inversely; one set of scores goes up as the other goes down
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correlation and causation
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correlation does not prove causation, but rather indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship
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experimentation
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research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
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cause and effect
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to isolate, psychologists statistically control other factors and experiment
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independent variable
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experimental factor that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied
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dependent variable
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outcome factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
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random assignment
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minimizes differences between the two groups
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placebo
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an inert pseudotreatment, perhaps a pill with no drug in it
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nerve cells
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basic building block of the nervous system, also called neurons
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motor neuron
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neuron that controls muscles
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synaptic gap
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tiny gap at the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron
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neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gap between neurons and generate action potential
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central nervous system (cns)
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system (pns)
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sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
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autonomic nervous system (ans)
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part of pns that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs
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dendrite
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bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
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axon
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extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
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cell body (soma)
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cell's life support center
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neural impulse/action potential
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brief electrical charge that travels down the axon
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myelin sheath
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layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
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axon terminal branches
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form junctions with other cells
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franz gall and phrenology
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theory that bumps on the skull represent mental abilities and character traits; proposed that different mental abilities are modular
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lesion
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studies animal behavior after specific regions are removed or destroyed
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electroencephalogram (eeg)
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records electrical waves moving across the brain's surface
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positron emission tomography (pet)
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follows radioactive form of glucose while brain performs a given task
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magnetic resonance imaging (mri)
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magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that show different types of brain tissue
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brainstem
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oldest part of the brain that regulates automatic survival options
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medulla
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base of brainstem that regulates heartbeat and breathing
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reticular formation
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nerve network in the brainstem that helps control arousal
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thalamus
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communication center
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cerebellum
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little brain attached to back of brainstem that regulates voluntary movements and balance
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limbic system
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emotions: fear, aggression, sexual drive; includes hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus
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amygdala
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two almond shaped neural clusters that control fear and anger
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hypothalamus
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located below the thalamus, a reward center that controls eating, drinking, temperature, and emotions, and helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
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hippocampus
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brain system that controls memory
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cerebral cortex
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intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers cerebral hemispheres; ultimate control and info processing center
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frontal lobe
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forehead lobe
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parietal lobe
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top brain lobe
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occipital lobe
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lobe in the back of the head
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temporal lobe
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side lobe
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broca's area
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controls language expression
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wernicke's area
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controls language reception
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plasticity
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brain's ability to modify itself after some type of injury or illness
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chromosomes
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molecules of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins
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DNA
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complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up chromosomes
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genes
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biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes; segment of dna capable of synthesizing a protein
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human genome project
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international effort to map the entire human genome
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genotype
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the genetic information of the 23 chromosome pairs
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phenotype
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physical appearance and behavior of a person
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dominant-recessive genes
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influence of one gene is greater than that of another gene; pattern may be x-linked, thus affecting males
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monozygotic twins (identical)
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twins originating from one zygote and sharing 100% genes
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dizygotic twins (fraternal)
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twins resulting from two sperm penetrating two ova, share 50% of genes
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problems with cloning
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originates with a live organism; ethics, taking the place of God
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germinal period
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stage of pregnancy from 0-2 weeks in which conception occurs in the fallopian tubes, there is cell differentiation and multiplication, and 42% of conceptions successfully implant in the uterus
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zygote
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fertilized egg that enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and becomes an embryo
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egg
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released by woman each month in ovulation cycle
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sperm
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pentrates egg to fertilize it
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conception
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single sperm penetrates outer coating of egg then they fuse to form one fertilized cell
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embryonic period
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3-8 weeks; major organs develop, organism less than 2" long
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fetal period
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9 weeks-birth; sex organs develop, significant brain development; age of viability 27 weeks
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age of viability
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age at which preterm newborn might survive
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teratogens
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harmful agents to the developing organism; alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, sickness
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anoxia
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abnormally low amount of oxygen
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schemas
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concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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assimilation
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interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
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accommodation
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adapting one's current understandings to incorporate new information
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sensorimotor stage
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birth-2 years; experiencing the world through senses and actions
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preoperational stage
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2-7 years; representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning
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concrete operational
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7-11 years; thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
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formal operational
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12-adulthood; abstract reasoning
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classical conditioning
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type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli
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ivan pavlov
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father of classical conditioning whose subjects were salivating dogs
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unconditioned stimulus
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stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response
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unconditioned response
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unlearned, naturally occurring response to the US
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conditioned stimulus
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originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
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conditioned response
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learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
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acquisition
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phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
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extinction
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diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
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operant conditioning
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type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
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law of effect
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behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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operant chamber/skinner box
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contains bar or key that an animal must manipulate to obtain a reinforcer, with attached devices to record
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reinforcement
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any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
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positive reinforcement
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adds desirable stimulus (paycheck, driving car after dishes)
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negative reinforcement
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removes aversive stimulus (fastening seatbelt to get rid of beeping)
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punishment
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aversive event that decreases behavior that it follows
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positive punishment
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administers aversive stimulus (spanking, parking ticket)
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negative punishment
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withdraws desirable stimulus (grounding)
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intrinsic motivation
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desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
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extrinsic motivation
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desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
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observational learning
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learning by observing other
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mirror neurons
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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; enable imitation, empathy, language learning
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modeling
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imitations by observation begins early in life
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albert bandura's bobo doll
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indicated that children learn through imitating others who receive reward and punishments
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memory
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persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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constructed memories
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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
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malleable nature
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can mold and change shape
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effects of stress on memory
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heightened emotions make for stronger memories; however, with continued stress, memory is disrupted
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role of the hippocampus
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neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
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sensory memory
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immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system
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working memory
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newer understanding of short term memory that involves active processing of incoming info and retrieved info
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long-term memory
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relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system
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chunking
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organizing items into familiar manageable units
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acronyms
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memory aids such as the use of the word HOMES to remember the great lakes
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retroactive interference
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disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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encoding
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processing of information into the memory system
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mnemonic devices
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memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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context effect
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putting yourself back into the context in which you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval
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sensation
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sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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perception
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process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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bottom-up processing
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analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info
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top-down processing
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info processing guided by higher-level mental processes
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psychophysics
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study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them
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thresholds
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minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus half of the time
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signal detection theory
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theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise; assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that expectations, motivations, and fatigue play a part
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sensory adaptation
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diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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selective attention
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focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
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inattentional blindness
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failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
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change blindness
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failure to notice a change in surrounding environment
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purpose of pain
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body's way of letting us know that something is wrong
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smell and memories
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close connection between brain areas that process smell and those involved in memory storage
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perceptual illusions
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reveal the ways we normally organize and interpret our sensations
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information processing
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conscious processing relatively slow but allows us to focus, unconscious automatic and rapid
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biological rhythms
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periodic physiological fluctuations controlled by internal biological clocks
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24 hour cycles
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cycle that takes place in 24 hours characterized by varying alertness, temperature, and growth hormone secretion
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90 minute cycles
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5 distinct sleep stages that occur during 90 minutes
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circadian rhythms
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biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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sleep stages 1-2
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high brain amplitude; slow and regular theta waves
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sleep stages 3-4
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brain activity slows; large amplitude; deepest sleep; slow delta waves
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REM sleep
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rapid eye movement sleep, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; low amplitude; fast, regular beta waves
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sleep deprivation
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general malaise, impaired concentration, emotional irritability, depressed immune system, greater vulnerability, fatigue/death
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somnambulism
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sleepwalking
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nightmares
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frightening dreams that wake a sleeper from REM sleep
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night terrors
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sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions
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narcolepsy
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over powering urge to fall asleep that may occur in any situation
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sleep apnea
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sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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freud's wish fulfillment
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dreams express otherwise unacceptable feelings and contain manifest and latent content
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information processing theory
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dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate memories
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physiological function theory
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regular brain stimulation from REM sleep helps develop and preserve neural pathways
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activation-synthesis theory
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neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our brain weaves into stories
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cognitive theory
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dream content reflects cognitive development
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psychological disorder
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deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional behavior patterns
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ancient means of treatment for disorders
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trephination, exorcism, caging, beating, burning, castrating, mutilating, transfusing with animal blood
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medical model
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concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured
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DSM IV - TR
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diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders used to classify and diagnose
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axis 1 diagnosis
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is a clinical syndrome present
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anxiety disorders
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disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
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generalized anxiety disorder
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anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
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panic disorder
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disorder marked by unpredictable episodes of intense dread and terror, chest pain, and choking
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phobia
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disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation
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obsessive compulsive disorder
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disorder characterized by unwanted thoughts and/or actions
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post-traumatic stress disorder
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disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
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personality disorders
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disorders characterized bye inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
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antisocial personality disorder
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disorder in which person exhibits lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family
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mood disorders
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disorders characterized by emotional extremes
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major depressive disorder
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disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities
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mania
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mood disorder marked by hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
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bipolar disorder
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disorder in which person alternates between hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
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cognitive therapy
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aims to identify and alter faulty thinking
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exposure therapy
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exposure of people to their fears in real or virtual environments
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systematic desensitization
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type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-tiggering stimuli
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behavior therapy
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aims to alter destructive or limiting behaviors that interfere with normal life functioning; applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
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psychoanalysis
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freud's therapeutic technique that believed that dreams,and free associations released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patients to gain self-insight
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defense mechanisms
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ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
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free association
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method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
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identification
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process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their own developing superegos
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latent dream content
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underlying meaning of a dream that serves as a safety valve
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manifest dream content
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remembered story line of a dream
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