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201 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are opportunistic pathogens?
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Use humans as food source
Immune system keeps this number in check |
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What are biofilms?
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Networks made by microbes to protect microbes and allow other microbes to move in. Made mainly of sugar
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Ratio of microbial cells to body cells?
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10 Microbial cells : 1 body cell
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What is an infection?
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A condition in which pathogenic microbes penetrate host defenses, enter tissues and MULTIPLY
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What is a pathogen?
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An infectious agent that causes infections and diseases
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What is an infectious disease?
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An infection that causes damage or disruption to tissues and organs
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What are transients? What are residents?
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Microbes that occupy the body for only short periods
Microbes that live in the body at all times |
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When do normal flora NOT cause disease?
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Under normal conditions
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What does blood NOT contain?
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Microbes
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Where are the most microbes found on the human body?
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In moist areas and near openings but not inside openings
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How many microbes do our intestines close to our stomach have? How many microbes does our colon have?
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Intestines close to stomach don't have that many microbes
Colon has TONS of microbes |
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What is microbial antagonism?
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Bacterial flora that benefit the host by preventing overgrowth of harmful microbes
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What are endogenous infections?
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Infections that occur when normal flora is introduced to a site that was previously sterile
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What do microbes produce to fight for habitat?
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toxins
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Where do we ONLY want microbes?
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non-sterile environments
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Examples of microbes entering sterile environments:
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Hernia in intestines
Appendicitis rupturing |
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What things can alter flora?
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Antibiotics, dietary changes and disease
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What are probiotics?
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Introduce known microbes back into the body
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What type of bacteria do antibiotics attack?
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All bacteria, don't distinguish between good and bad
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How do bacteria keep fungi in check?
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By producing acid
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What type of microbes are antibiotics?
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Opportunistic microbes
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What do we use that contains good bacteria to counteract antibiotics?
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Probiotics contain good bacteria to counteract antibiotics
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What happens during adhesion stage of the development of an infection?
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Bacteria colonize and make more of themselves. Produce chemicals that effect the surrounding tissue. Make highways to spread and use the body as a food source
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What are true pathogens?
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Capable of causing disease in a health person with normal immune system. example: the flu
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What are opportunistic pathogens?
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Cause disease when the host defenses are compromised or when they grow in part of the body that isnt normal to them. Example: HIV
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What does the severity of a disease depend on?
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Virulence of the pathogen
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What is a virulence factor?
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Tells us how potent the pathogen is
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What is SCID?
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SEVERE genetic defect that makes you susceptible to immune defects
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What is an infectious dose?
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The minimum number of microbes required for infection to proceed
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Describe the infectious dose if microbe has potent virulence factors:
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ID is LOW if microbe has potent virulence factors
ID is HIGH if virulence factors arent that good |
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What are the distinct stages of clinical infections?
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1. incubation period
2. prodromal stage 3. period of invasion 4. convalescent period |
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What is the incubation period?
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Time from initial contact with the infectious agent to the appearance of the first symptoms. Can be several hours to several YEARS.
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What is the prodromal stage?
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Vague feelings of discomfort. Short period of time
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What is the period of invasion?
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MULTIPLIES AT HIGH LEVELS. More specific signs and symptoms. Take drugs during this time.
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What is the convalescent period?
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As person begins to respond to the infection, symptoms decline and you feel better. Most likely to spread the infection
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What is a localized infection?
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Microbes enter the body and remain confined to a specific tissue
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What is a systematic infection?
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Infection spreads to several sites and tissue fluids usually in the bloodstream. Worst type of infection. Uses blood stream to spread all over. Also called sepsis. Need to be treated immediately.
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What is a focal infection?
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When infectious agent breaks loose from a local infection and is carried to other tissues
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What is a mixed infection?
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Several microbes grow simultaneously at the infection site
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What is a primary infection?
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Initial infection. Lowers immune system
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What is a secondary infection?
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Infection caused by a primary infection
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What is an acute infection?
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Comes on rapidly with severe but short lived effects (comes and goes)
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What are chronic infections?
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Progress and persist over a long period of time. Stays with you.
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What is latency?
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After the initial symptoms in certain chronic diseases, the microbe can periodically become active and produce a recurrent disease. person may or may not shed the disease during latent stage. pathogen stays dormant until activated
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What is a chronic carrier?
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A person with a latent infection who sheds the infectious agent. Will not appear "ill"
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What is sequelae?
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Long term or permanent damage to tissues or organs
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What is an example of a latent pathogen?
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herpes. Can be considered part of normal flora
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What is an example of a sequelae?
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Strep throat which can lead to kidney problems, heart problems, etc.
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What is a reservoir?
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Primary habitat of pathogen (where pathogen is found in nature)
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What is a source?
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Where you pick the pathogen up from (might get from another human and not reservoir)
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What is a vector?
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A live animal that tansmits an infectious agent from one host to another
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What is a biological vector?
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Actively participates in a pathogens life cycle. Example: malaria agent
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What is a mechanical vector?
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Not necessary to the life cycle of an infectious agent and merely transports it without being infected
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What is zoonosis?
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an infection indigenous to animals but naturally transmissible to humans. impossible to eliminate the disease without eliminating the animal reservoir
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Who is the host when dealing with small pox?
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only humans
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what are examples of nonliving reservoirs?
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soil, water, and air (THESE ARE NOT VECTORS)
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what do pathogens like to do?
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mutate. think of flu and how there are tons of different strains
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where does tetanus come from?
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soil
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what is epidemiology?
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the study of the frequency and distribution of disease and health related factors in human populations.
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what is prevalence?
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total number of existing cases with respect to the entire population usually represented by a percentage of the population
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what is mortality rate?
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the total number of deaths in a population due to a certain disease (how many people die from disease)
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what is morbidity rate?
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number of people afflicted with a certain disease (how many people get a disease)
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how do mortality and morbidity rate vary?
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vary among population, age group and pathogen
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what is an endemic?
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disease that exhibits a relatively steady frequency over a long period of time in a particular geographic location. ex: malaria is endemic to africa and asia
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what is epidemic?
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when prevalence of a disease is increasing beyond what is expected. epidemic can come from increase in an endemic/sporadic
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what is a pandemic?
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epidemic across continents. pandemics we have: AIDS, flu. flu usually starts in asia. swine flu started in mexico
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what are the two types of defense mechanisms of a host?
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innate defenses & adaptive immunities
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what are we injected with when given a vaccination?
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either a toxide (unactivated toxin like tetanus) or a killed pathogen
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what are innate defenses?
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present at birth. consists of physical barriers, chemical responses, immune cells that act on pathogens.
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what are adaptive immunities?
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highly specific. must be aquired. most effective. these are cells that produce chemicals, once activated they must undergo lots of changes until they work, once they work they will always work. ex= vaccination
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at what percent are vaccinations considered very effective?
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50%
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what are the functions of a healthy immune system?
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surveillance of the body, recognition of foreign material, destruction of entities deemed to be foreign
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what are white blood cells?
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also called leukocytes.
fight foreign material present in innate and adaptive defenses |
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what are pathogen associated patterns?
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also called PAMPS
present in invaders combine with PRRs to eliminate |
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what are pathogen recognition receptors?
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also called PRRs
ex= toll like receptors cells of the innate immune system have PRRs on their cell surface that recognize certain parts on a pathogen (PAMPs) |
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what is phagocytosis?
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eating big stuff like yeast cells
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what are the general activities of phagocytes?
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1. to survey tissue compartments and discover microbes, particulate matter and dead or injured cells
2. to ingest and eliminate these materials 3. to extract immunogenic information from foreign matter |
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what are the major cells present in the adaptive line of defense?
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B and T lymphocytes (white blood cells). Also called T cells and B cells.
T and B cells bind to an antigen, which activates these cells. can then eliminate pathogen. |
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what are the two features that characterize specific immunity?
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specificity and memory
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what does the "memory" feature in specific immunity do?
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lymphocytes are programmed to recall their first encounter with an antigen and respond rapidly to subsequent encounters.
this is how vaccinations work |
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what is a specific immune system?
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an adaptive/acquired immune system
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what type of receptors do T cells have? what type of receptors do B cells have?
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T cells have T cell receptors.
B cells have B cell receptors |
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what must T cells or B cells bind to in order to be activated?
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must bind to an antigen with 100% perfect binding. lymphocyte binds to an antigen, this activates lymphocyte which then clones itself. leads to elimination of the pathogen.
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what is a macrophage?
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"big eater"
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what is the clonal selection theory?
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1. extremely effective because it can trigger memory and can select for a specific pathogen
2. each cell has one type of specific receptor 3. each genetically different type of lymphocyte (called a clone) expresses a single specificity 4. possible to create millions of different receptors on lymphocytes |
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what is each type of lymphocyte called?
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a clone
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how many receptors does 1 lymphocyte have?
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has one type of receptor but can have many of these if they are the same TYPE
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the receptor present in each lymphocyte looks different where?
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looks different where it binds to an antigen (outermost part of receptor varies)
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what is immunoglobulin?
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1. large glycoproteins that serve as specific receptors of B cells
2. composed of 4 polypeptide chains 3. sit in organs and wait to be presented with an antigen to bind to 4. y-shaped (forks of y point out when sitting on cell which is what binds antigen) |
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what makes up the 4 polypeptide chains in immunoglobulin (B cell receptor)?
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2 identical heavy chains (H)
2 identical light chains (L) |
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how many binding sites does a T cell receptor have?
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1 binding site
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How many antigens can one T cell receptor bind to?
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1 antigen
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what is B cell activation and antibody production?
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Once B cells process the Ag, interact with T cells, they enter the cell cycle in preparation for clonal expansion
divisions give rise to plasma cells that secrete antibodies and memory cells that can react to the same antigen later B cells kick out proteins (antibodies) |
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What do B cells become?
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B cells become antibody producing machines called plasma cells
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What do plasma cells secrete?
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Secrete antibodies (make lots of these which are all the same). Then the antibodies go out and bind with all the antigens they can find when they're secreted. Will cover pathogen which then destroys the pathogen.
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What can memory cells easily change into?
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Plasma cells
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What are T helper cells?
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1. most prevalent type of T cell
2. act like "big bosses" 3. T helper cells is why HIV is such a potent virus (HIV infects Th cells and regulation is blocked) 4. regulate immune reaction to antigens, including other T and B cells |
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What are cytotoxic T cells?
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1. Tc cells must get signal from Th cell to destroy a foreign cell
2. destroy foreign or abnormal cells 3. once tc cells are activated they will recognize infected cells. will see cells are infected. will go there. get signal from th cell and then destroy cell |
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to distinguish between Th and Tc cells what must you look for in molecules?
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CD4= Th cells
CD8= Tc cells |
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what is the role of the th8 cell?
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help, have regulatory function, once activated they will make specific chemicals which make different products. some will make B cells, some will trigger tc cells. Tc cells have to bind with an antigen
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what are superantigens?
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1. lead to false specific binding
2. molecules that fool lymphocytes. they can activate a large number of t cells |
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what is artificial active immunity?
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deliberately exposing a person to material that is antigenic but not pathogenic
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what is the principle of a vaccination?
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to stimulate a primary and secondary anamnestic response to prepare the immune system for future exposure to a virulent pathogen
triggers/creates memory cells |
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what is herd immunity?
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living in protected population
if we live within a population where most people are protected against disease (95%) noone really gets the pathogen |
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what triggers active immunity?
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triggered by getting sick which produces memory cells or antibodies
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what is an example of a natural active immunity?
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chicken pox
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what type of immunity is producing antibodies in animals and then giving it to humans?
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passive immunity
WONT LEAD TO MEMORY |
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what is passive immunity?
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refers to a shot or a pill that contains antibodies that were produced from another source
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what type of immunity do you get from tetanus?
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active and passive immunity
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what structures are essential to the functions of all prokaryotic cells?
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cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes or one (or a few) chromosomes
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what does chromosomal DNA contain?
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ALL information for growth under normal conditions
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what surrounds the cytoplasm?
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a plasma membrane
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what type of membrane does every living cell have?
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plasma membrane
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what are the two types of external structures present in prokaryotes?
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appendages and glycocalyx (surface coating)
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what are the two major groups of appendages?
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motility and attachment/channels
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what do prokaryotic cells use to move?
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flagella or axial filaments (periplasmic flagella)
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what do prokaryotic cells use to attach or use as channels?
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fimbriae and or pili
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what are the three parts of a flagella?
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filament, hook, basal body
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what is a filament?
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long, thin, helical structure composed of flagellin (protein)
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what is a basal body?
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stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall
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what propels bacteria?
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flagella (can rotate 360 degrees)
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what part of flagella do we see?
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filament (comes out of the cell)
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describe the position of a flagella on a cell:
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filament is stuck in a hook anchored to the cell by a basal body
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what allows for rotation of flagella?
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hook of the flagella
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what is chemotaxis?
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1. guide bacteria in a direction in response to chemical stimuli
2. respond to food/toxins 3. positive and negative |
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what is phototaxis?
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1. guide bacteria in a direction in response to light stimuli
2. respond to light |
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in what two directions can flagella move?
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1. counterclockwise- move flagella forward
2. clockwise- allows for change of direction of flagella |
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what are axial filaments?
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1. type of flagella
2. internal flagella enclosed between cell wall and cell membrane of spirochetes 3. produce cellular motility by contracting/act like worms |
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what is periplasmic space?
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space in cell wall
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are filaments(flagella) in axial filaments present under a microscope?
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no. filament part is stuck in cell wall
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how do axial filaments move?
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contract and flex like worms
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what is a spirochete?
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1. bacteria that have axial filaments
2. ex= t.pallidum which causes cyphillis |
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what are fimbriae?
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1. hair like bristles that surround the cell surface
2. made up of adhesion proteins that help bacteria adhere to surface 3. also help adhere to tissue which is necessary for colonization 4. cranberry juice example |
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what is the function of fimbriae?
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adhesion to other cells and surfaces
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what are pili?
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1. rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
2. hollow tubes 3. opening of tube opens to cytoplasm 4. rigid structure sticks out and hooks onto a partner 5. these bacteria can make copies of their genes and give copies to their partner (process called conjugation) - can give antibiotic resistance tendencies to other bacteria |
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what is the function of pili?
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1. join bacterial cells for partial DNA transfer called conjugation
2. conjugation is a major component used by bacteria. must have physical contact. tube goes to cytoplasm of partner to exchange DNA. this leads to antibiotic resistance |
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what is a glycocalyx?
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1.coating of molecules external to the cell wall. made of sugars (carbohydrates) and/or proteins
2. cells secrete this and surround themselves with it 3.protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss 4. inhibit killing of white blood cells by phagocytosis, contributing to pathogenicity 5.attachment (formation of biofilm-slime layer) 6. protects molecules from antimicrobial resistance 7. some bacteria make a glycocalyx similar to our tissue which our bodie wont recognize as a pathogen |
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what are the two types of glycocalyx's?
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slime layer= loosely organized and attached
capsule= highly organized, tightly attached- more rigid structure |
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what is the best way to destroy a biofilm?
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mechanically
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what is biofilm a protection from?
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1.protection from oxygen (we have many anaerobes in our mouth)
2. anaerobes will ferment (produce acids) in our mouth which cause cavities 3. when you eat sugar, biofilms form |
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what do phagocytes have a hard time attacking?
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capsules
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what is the function of the cell wall?
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1. determines cell shape
2. prevents lysis (bursting) or collapsing of cell due to changes in osmotic pressure |
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what is the primary component of the cell wall?
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peptidoglycan which is a unique macromolecule composed of repeating framework of long glycan chains cross-linked by short peptide fragments
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what does plasma membrane NOT contain which would help them avoid osmosis if they DID have it?
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steroids
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if a bacterium has a cell wall, this means it also has what?
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peptidoglycan
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what type of glycans does peptidoglycan have?
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alternating glycans (M and G) that are bound together in long strands
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what types of bonds are present between glycans?
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glycosidic bonds
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what is ALWAYS between the "M"units of peptidoglycan?
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peptide bridge
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how much peptidoglycan does each cell have?
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several layers
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who invented the gram stain?
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hans christian gram
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what color is gram positive?
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purple/blue
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what color is gram negative?
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pink/red
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what determines if a cell is gram negative or positive?
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based on cell wall components
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what does gram staining help us with?
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determining the right treatment
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what type of peptidoglycan does gram positive cell wall have?
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thick, many sheets (HUGE)
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what two types of acid does gram positive cell wall contain?
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teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid
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what is the function of teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid in gram positive cell wall?
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function in cell wall maintenance and enlargement during cell division
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which has more complex cell wall? gram positive or negative?
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gram negative
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what makes up a gram negative cell wall?
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outer membrane and a THIN peptidoglycan layer
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what makes up the outer layer of the outer membrane of a gram negative cell wall?
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outermost layer contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and lipoproteins
-lipid portion(endotoxin) may become toxic when released during infections -may function as receptors and blocking immune response -contain porin proteins in upper layer which regulate molecules entering and leaving cell |
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what is the bottom layer of the gram negative cell wall?
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a thin sheet of peptidoglycan with periplasmic space above and below it
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what makes up LPS in gram negative cell wall?
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1.O polysaccharide (called an O antigen) - vary between bacterial strains
2. core polysaccharide made of charged sugars and phosphate 3. lipid A = potent toxin |
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what is another name for LPS?
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endotoxin
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what part of LPS sticks out of cell?
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O polysaccharide (O antigen)
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What are we NOT exposed to in LPS when bacteria is in tact?
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when bacteria is in tact, were not exposed to lipid A. only when we break down bacteria.
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where is lipid A in LPS of gram negative cell wall?
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lipid A is embedded in membrane
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what is a "porin" in a gram negative cell wall?
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porin allows for exchange
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Bacteria group that lacks typical cell wall:
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Mycobacterium
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What type of stain do we use for Mycobacterium?
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Acid fast stain because they don't stain well since they are slow growers
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What type of cell wall does mycobacterium have?
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gram positive cell wall structure with lipi mycolic acid
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what does mycobacterium cause?
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causes tuberculosis. have mycolid acid (waxy lipid) that makes cell wall tough. gives bacteria alot of protection against chemicals and antibiotics
-penicillin doesn't work for tuberculosis -mycobacterium makes organism a slow grower (can take up to a whole day to double) |
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what is an example of a bacterial group that has no cell wall?
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mycoplasma
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what is mycoplasma?
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-has no cell wall
-cell membrane is stabilized by sterols in plasma membrane -pleomorphic (can have many shapes) |
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what is the fluid mosaic model?
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phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
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what makes up the cell membrane?
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phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
-proteins can move, number of proteins can change -not alot of exchange takes place here because it is only semi-permeable |
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what are the functions of the cell membrane?
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1. provide site for energy reactions, nutrient processing, and synthesis
2. transport into and out of cell |
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what is the cytoplasm?
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-material inside cell
-dense gelatinous solution made of sugars, amino acids and salts -70-80% water (serves as solvent for materials used in all cell functions) |
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what is a chromosome?
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-where genetics (DNA) is held
-single, circular, double stranded DNA -aggregated in a dense area called the nucleoid which is not seperated from the rest of the cytoplasm -DNA is tightly coiled (compact) |
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what are plasmids?
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1. "extra" DNA
2. small circular, double stranded DNA 3. duplicated and passed on to offspring 4. not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism 5. plasmids are much smaller than chromosomal DNA. easily extracted and then replaced within bacteria 6. used in genetic engineering 7. may encode antibiotic resistance, tolerance to toxic metals, enzymes and toxins |
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what are ribosomes?
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-made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein
-prokaryotic differ from eukaryotic in size -SITE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS -present in all cells -if ribosomes are damaged, no protein synthesis which stops the growth of bacteria |
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what are human ribosomes called?
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80S ribosomes
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what are prokaryotic ribosomes called?
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70S ribosomes
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what are inclusions and granules?
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-STORAGE
-bacterial cell can use them when environmental sources are depleted -vary in size, number and content -products that cell doesnt need go here |
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what is the cytoskeleton?
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-VERY PRIMATIVE
-many bacteria possess an internal network of protein polymers that is closely associated with the cell wall -actin is a cytoskeleton protein. we find these in bacteria |
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what are endospores?
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small dormant resistant derivative of a bacterial cell that germinates under favorable growth conditions into a vegetative cell. the bacterial genera "Bacillus" and "Clostridium" are typical sporeformers
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what is sporulation?
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formation of endospores
-withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation and chemicals -not a means of reproduction |
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what is germination?
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return of vegetative growth
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what does NOT get rid of endospores?
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boiling water does NOT get rid of endospores. instead boil water, let it cool, boil again and repeat several times to reduce endospores
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what is a vegetative cell?
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actively growing and multiplying
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what happens if endospores are in our body?
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they will germinate which will make us sick
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how long can endospores lie dormant?
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for years
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examples of endospores:
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anthrax, tetanus, botulism (used in terrorism and botox)
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what are the shapes of bacterial cells?
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-cocci
-bacilli -spirilli (have flagellum) can also be branched which live in soil and look like mold |
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what are the two types of bacillus?
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coccobacillus- very short and plump
vibrio- gently curved (look like commas) |
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what shape does spirochete have?
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spirilli (spiral) and also spring like. no flagella
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what are the two main arrangement of cocci bacteria?
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1. chains = streptococcus
2. clusters = staphylococcus these can cause upper respiratory infections |
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what was the tuskagee study?
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studied people who had cyphillis. wouldn't give patients penicillin.
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what is the worst stage of cyphillis?
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tertiary
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what are streptomycetes?
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-branch like
-good at producing antibiotics -this group lead to the first streptomyacin that led to kill tuberculosis |
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what is a species?
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a collection of bacterial cells which share an overall similar pattern of traits in contrast to other bacteria whose pattern differs significantly
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definition of type:
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a subspecies that can show differences in antigenic makeup (serotype), susceptibility to bacterial viruses (phage type) and in pathogenicity
serotype: use antibodies (highly specific proteins from immune system) to determine strains |
