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61 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Broad-Spectrum Revolution
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• Foraging of varied plant and animal foods at end of Ice Age: prelude to Neolithic.
• Refers to the period beginning around 15,000 BP in the middle east and 12,000 BP in Europe, during which a wider range • Revolutionary because in the middle East it led to food production |
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Mesolithic
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• Stone tool making, emphasizing microlith within broad-spectrum economics
• Characterize tool type: microlith |
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Neolithic
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• Describe economies based on food production (cultivated crops and domesticated animals)
• Primary significance of the Neolithic; was the new total economy rather than just its characteristics artifacts, which include pottery. • Based on food production were associated with substantial changes in human lifestyles • First used to describe “new” tool technologies • Period also marked by advent of dependence on domesticated plants/animals |
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Forger Lifestyle
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• As little as of 0.00005% of humanity currently practice this
• They are in southern Africa and the Philippines • Food obtained in as little as 20 hours/week • Considerable focus on leisure time, ritual, and other social activities |
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Teosinte
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• Wild ancestor of maize; grows wild in southwestern Mexico.
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Benefits of Food Production
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1. Discoveries, inventions
2. Urban life 3. Trade, markets 4. Reliable yield crops 5. Writing |
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Costs of Food Production
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1. Slavery
2. Taxes, Military work 3. Greater stress 4. Harder, longer work 5. Ride in crime, and war |
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Origins of States
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• State – society with central government, administrative specialization, and social classes
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Examples of "Origins of states"
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• Hydraulic System:
1. In certain arid areas, states have emerged to manage systems of irrigation, drainage, and flood control 2. Example: Egypt • Long Distance trade routes 1. Example: Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia • Population, war, and circumscription |
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Band
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1. basic unit of social organization among foragers
2. fewer than 100 people, often splits up, nomadic |
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Tribe
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1. form of sociopolitical organization based on horticulture or pastoralism
2. Social stratification generally absent 3. No means of enforcing political decisions |
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Cheifdom
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1. intermediate between tribe and state
2. differential access to resources, beginning of social stratification 3. more access to resources, permanent political structure |
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Egalitarian society
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• Most typical among foragers
• Lack status distinctions except for those based on age, gender, and individual qualities, talents, and achievements • Status distinctions are usually achieved by individuals during their lives, rather than being inherited (ascribed) |
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Attributes to States
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• Controls a specific regional territory
• Productive farming economy • Used tribute and taxation to accumulate • Stratified into social classes, most were commoners • Imposed public buildings and monumental architecture (temples, palaces, storehouses) • Developed a form of record keeping (written script) |
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Pseudoscience & Occam’s Razor
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• “One should not make more assumptions than the minimum to explain a phenomenon.”
• -The simplest explanation is usually the best explanation |
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Jericho
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• Destroyed, but rebuilt
• Earliest known town, settled by the Natufians around 11,000 B.P |
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Uruk Period
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• First cities in southern Mesopotamia
• Economies managed by centralized leadership • Settlements spread north (Syria) |
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Cuneiform
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• Economic activities recorded
• Mesopotamian writing |
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Harappan Civilization
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• northwestern India and Pakistan
• State flourished between 4600 and 3900 B.P. • Urban planning |
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Harappan Civilization
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• Social stratification
• Early writing system • Major cities (Harappa and Mohenjo-daro) with carefully planned residential areas and wastewater systems • State collapse resulted from warfare |
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Methods of human sacrifice in Shang Dynasty
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• beheading
• splitting body in two halves • dismembering • beating, chopping • extracting blood • live burial • drowning • burying • boiling • exposure |
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Shang Dynasty
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• First state
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• Earlier explanations of state formation and collapse focused on natural environmental factors (e.g., climate change, habitat destruction, demographic pressure)
• Social and political factors are more prominent in current explanations of the origin and decline of states |
Why did the states collapse?
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Ethnography
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• an account of a particular community, society, or culture
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Ethnology
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• compares the results of ethnographies
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Cultural Anthropology
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• study of human societies and cultures
• Analyze, interpret, and explain socio-cultural similarities and differences |
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Participant observation
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• Essentially, this is learning by doing
• Requires rapport with community members |
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Ghana fieldwork
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• Goal: getting to know the fishermen
• Build trust, make connections for leasing canoes • Multiple offshore voyages, overnight trips |
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Ghana fieldwork
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• Potential research projects
• Data on fish catches, how market is organized, typical wages of fishermen, rivalries among different ethnic groups, fishing techniques, impact on fish populations • Information related to shipwreck sites |
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Forager Lifestyle
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Social organization – bands of 100 individuals
• Territoriality/mobility • Population control • Division of labor • Material culture • Social stratification |
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Key informants
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- Key cultural consultants
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Key informants
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Every community has people who by accident, experience, talent, or training can provide the most complete or useful information about particular aspects of life
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Emic Approach
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investigates how natives think, categorize the world, express thoughts, and interpret stimuli
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Emic Approach
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“Research strategy focusing on local explanations and meanings”
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Etic Approach
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emphasizes categories, interpretations, and features that anthropologist considers important
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Etic Approach
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“Research strategy emphasizing the ethnographer’s explanations and categories”
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Problem Oriented Ethnographies
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-impossible to record/study all aspects of a society
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Problem Oriented Ethnographies
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-Ethnographers typically address a specific problem or set of problems within context of broader depictions of cultures.
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Ethnographic present
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a romanticized timelessness before westernization, which gave ethnographies an eternal, unchanging quality
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Language (Allows Humans to)
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Conjure up elaborate images
Discuss the past and future Share experiences with others Benefit from their experiences Provide insights into background of speaker |
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Animal Communication
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Call Systems
Sign Language |
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What apes could speak in sign language?
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Washoe
Koko |
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Productivity
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combined two or more signs to create new expressions
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Displacement
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ability to talk about things that are not present
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Kinesics
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study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions
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Phoneme
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significant sound contrast that distinguishes meaning
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Phonetics
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study of human speech sounds
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Lexicon
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dictionary containing all its morphemes and their meanings
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Syntax
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arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences
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Universal Grammer
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Noam Chomsky argues human brain contains limited set of rules for organizing language, so that all languages have common structural basis
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Sapir - Whorf Hypothesis
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grammatical categories of different languages lead their speakers to think about things in particular ways
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Sapir - Whorf Hypothesis
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Opposite approach from Chomsky
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Focal Vocabulary
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Specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups
Vocabulary is area of language that changes most rapidly |
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Focal Vocabulary
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Language, culture, and thought are interrelated
E.g. Eskimo words for snow |
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Daughter languages
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languages that descend from the same parent language and that have been changing separately for hundreds or even thousands of years
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Historical languages
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-reconstruct many features of past languages by studying contemporary daughter languages
-Long-term variation of speech by studying protolanguages and daughter languages -Proto-Indo-European (PIE) Family Tree |
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Linguistic Stratification
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-We use and evaluate speech in context of extralinguistic forces—social, political, and economic
-Our speech habits help determine our access to employment and other material resources |
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Diglossia
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regular style shifts between “high” and “low” variants of the same language
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Style Shifting
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varying speech in different contexts
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Sociolinguistics
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-Investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation, or language in its social context
-focus on features that vary systematically with social position and situation |
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• Ancestors began to combine calls and understand combinations
• Number of calls expanded, becoming to great to be transmitted even partly through genes • Communication relies on learning • Changes in prognathism (projection of face) and favored vocalization • Shortened muzzle, stretched pharynx (throat) and lowering of larynx and epiglottis |
What are some examples of Evolution of Language?
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