Physical Anthropology Exam 3 Langenwalter

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Biological Classification

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The ordering of organisms into categories, such as orders, families, and genera, to show evolutionary relationships

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Binomial Nomenclature

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In taxonomy, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby genus and species names are used to refer to species

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Taxonomy

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The field that specializes in establishing the rules of classification

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Metazoa

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a major division of the animal kingdom that comprises all animals other than protozoans and sponges. They are multicellular animals with differentiated tissues.

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Protozoan

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a single-celled microscopic animal of a group of phyla of the kingdom Protista, such as an ameba, flagellate, ciliate, or sporozoan.

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Sponges

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a primitive sedentary aquatic invertebrate with a soft porous body that is typically supported by a framework of fibers or calcareous or glassy spicules. They draw in a current of water to extract nutrients and oxygen.

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Phylum

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a principal taxonomic category that ranks above class and below kingdom.

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Chordata

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The phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates

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Vertebrates

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Animals with segmented, bony spinal columns; includes fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

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Homologies

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Similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor

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Analogies

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Similarities between organisms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent

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Cladogram

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a branching diagram showing the cladistic relationship between a number of species. It contains no time component and does not imply ancestor-descendant relationships

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Cladistics

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An approach to classification that attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters

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Derived

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Referring to characters that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus are diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages

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Ancestral

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referring to characters inherited by a group of organisms from a remote ancestor and thus not diagnostic of groups that diverged after the character first appeared

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Biological Species Concept

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A depiction of species as groups of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups

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Genus

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a principal taxonomic category that ranks above species and below family

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Species

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a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. It is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus

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Viviparous

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bringing forth live young that have developed inside the body of the parent.

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Heterodont

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Having different kinds of teeth; characteristic of mammals, whose teeth consist of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars

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Endothermic

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Able to maintain internal body temperature by producing energy through metabolic processes within cells; characteristic of mammals, birds, and perhaps some dinosaurs

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Prosimians

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(Monkeys and Apes) Members of a suborder of primates. Traditionally, the suborder includes lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers

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Anthropoids

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Members of a suborder of Primates. Traditionally, the suborder includes monkeys, apes, and humans.

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Primatologists

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Scientists who study the evolution, anatomy, and behavior of nonhuman primates. Those who study behavior in noncaptive animals are usually trained as physical anthropologists.

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Primates

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Members of the order of mammals, which include prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans

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Morphology

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The form of anatomical structures; can also refer to to the entire organism

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Arboreal

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Tree living; adapted to life in the trees

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Adaptive Niche

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An organism's entire way of life: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets food, how it avoids predators, and so on

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Intelligence

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Mental capacity; ability to learn, reason, or comprehend and interpret information, facts, relationships, and meaning; the capacity to solve problems, whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through insight.

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Arboreal Hypothesis

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Increases reliance on vision, coupled with grasping hands and feet, are also adaptations to an arboreal lifestyle. In a complex, three-dimensional environment with uncertain footholds, acute color vision with depth perception is, for obvious reasons, extremely beneficial.

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Midline

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a median line or plane of bilateral symmetry, esp. that of the body.

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Cusps

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a pointed end where two curves meet?????

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Quadrupedal

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Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian (and primate) form of locomotion

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Dental Formula

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Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws. (Midline and Cusps)

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Macaques

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a medium-sized, chiefly forest-dwelling Old World monkey that has a long face and cheek pouches for holding food.

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Brachiation

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A form of locomotion used by some primates; the animal suspends itself from a branch or other handhold and moves by alternately swinging from one forelimb to the other; also called arm swinging

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Rhinarium

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is the moist, naked surface around the nostrils of the nose in most mammals. Enhances an animal's ability to smell.

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Callitrichidae

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One of the two families of Platyrrhines. Marmosets and tamarins

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Cebidae

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One of the two families of Platyrrhines. All of the others

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Marmosets

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a small Central and South American monkey with a silky coat and a long nonprehensile tail.

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Tamarins

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a small forest-dwelling South American monkey of the marmoset family, typically brightly colored and with tufts and crests of hair around the face and neck.

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Platyrrhine

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of or relating to primates of a group that comprises the New World monkeys, marmosets, and tamarins. They are distinguished by having nostrils that are far apart and directed forward or sideways, and typically have a prehensile tail.

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Ischial Callosities

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Patches of tough, hard skin on the buttocks of Old World monkeys and chimpanzees

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Cercopithecidae

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A taxonomic family that Old World Monkeys are placed under

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Cercopithecines

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The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons

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Colobines

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Common name for members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs

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Sexual Dimorphism

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Differences in physical characteristics between males and femalies of the same species.

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Estrus

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a recurring period of sexual receptivity and fertility in many female mammals; heat

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Hominoidea

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consists of orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos and humans. Alternatively, the hominidae family are collectively described as the great apes.

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Hylobatidae

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consists of four genera and sixteen species of gibbon, including the lar gibbon and the siamang. They are commonly referred to as lesser apes.

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Pongidae

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usually considered as comprising orangutans; gorillas; chimpanzees; and sometimes gibbons

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Paraphyly

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It means a group which does not include all its descendents.

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Frugivorous

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Having a diet composed primarily of fruit

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Natal Group

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The group in which animals are born and raised

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Primate Characteristics

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-Limbs and Locomotion
-Diet and Teeth
-Senses and Brain
-Maturation, Learning, and Behavior

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Erect Posture

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All primates show this tendency to some degree, and it's variously associated with sitting, leaping, standing, and occasionally, bipedal walking

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Flexibility

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It allows most primates to practice various locomotor behaviors. Primates have retained some bones and certain abilities that have been lost in more specialized mammals.

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Prehensility

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Grasping, as by the hands and feet of primates

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Pentadactyly

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having five toes or fingers, or derived from such a form

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Nails

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Seen in all primates except in some highly derived New World monkeys.

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Opposable Thumb

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Most primates are capable of moving the thumb so that it opposes or comes in contact with the second digit or with the palm of the hand

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Tactile Pads

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Enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits. Enhances the sense of touch

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Omnivorous

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Having a diet consisting of many food types

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Generalized Dentition

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The teeth aren't specialized for processing only one type of food, a characteristic related to a general lack of dietary specialization

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Dental Formula

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Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws

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Diurnal

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Active during the day

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Olfaction

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The sense of smell

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Nocturnal

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Active during the night

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Color Vision

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This is a characteristic of all diurnal primates

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Stereoscopic Vision

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The ability to perceive objects in three dimensions

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Binocular Vision

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Vision characterized by overlapping visual fields provided by forward-facing eyes. It is essential to depth perception.

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Bilaterally of Vision

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having or relating to two sides; affecting both sides

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Hemispheres

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Two halves of the cerebrum that are connected by a dense mass of fibers.

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Three-Dimensional Vision

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The capacity for stereoscopic vision depends on each hemisphere of the brain receiving visual information from both eyes and from overlapping visual fields

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Matt Cartmill—Visual Predation Hypothesis

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Points out that animals such as squirrels are also arboreal, yet they haven't evolved primate-like adaptations such as prehensile hands or forward-facing eyes, but animals with forward-facing eyes provide insight into an additional factor that could have shaped primate evolution.

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Complexity

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This is a general trend among placental mammals, but it's especially true of primates. In primates, this expansion is most evident in the visual and association areas of the neocortex. Expansion in regions involved with the hand is seen in many primate species, particularly humans.

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Learned Behavior

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This trend is correlated with delayed maturation and subsequently longer periods of infant and child dependency on at least one parent.

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Social

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Except for some nocturnal species, primates tend to associate with other individuals. The permanent association of adult males with the group is un common in mammals but widespread in primates.

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Prosimians

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Lemurs, Lorises, and Tarsiers

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Lemur

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-Found only on the island of Madagascar and adjacent islands off the east coast of Africa.
-60 Different species
-the larger ones are diurnal and exploit a wide variety of dietary items while the smaller ones are nocturnal and insectivorous

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Loris

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-Resembles lemurs, were able to survive in mainland areas by adopting a nocturnal activity pattern at a time when most other prosimians, which were diurnal, became extinct.
-8 species all are found in tropical forest and woodland habitats of India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
-They are slow, cautious, climbing form of quadrupedalism

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Tarsier

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-There are five recognized species, all of which are restricted to Island Southeast Asia, where they inhabit a wide range of forest types, from tropical forest to backyard gardens.
-Nocturnal insectivores that use vertical clinging and leaping to surprise prey on lower branches and shrubs
-Must rotate their head 180 degrees

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New World Monkeys

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-They can be found in a wide range of arboreal environments throughout most forested areas in southern Mexico and Central and South America, and exhibit a wide range of size, diet, and ecological adaptations.
-Barely come to the ground are mostly arboreal
-All but the owl monkey are diurnal
-They have broad noses with outward-facing nostrils

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Old World Monkeys

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-Are the most widely distributed of all living primates. They are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia, ranging from tropical jungle habitats to semiarid desert and even to seasonally snow-covered areas in northern Japan.
-Mostly quadrupedal and primarily arboreal, but some are also adapted to life on the ground

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Behavior

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Anything organisms do that involves action in response to internal or external stimuli. The response of an individual, group, or species to its environment. Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren't necessarily the results of conscious decision making, as in single-celled organisms, insects, and many other species.

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Free-ranging

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Pertaining to non-captive animals living in their natural habitat. Ideally, the behavior of wild study groups would be free of human influence.

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Social Structure

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The composition, size, and sex ration of a group of animals. They are the results of natural selection in specific habitats, and they influence individual interactions and social relationships.

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Ecological

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relating to or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings

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Behavioral Ecology

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They study of the evolution of behavior, emphasizing the role of ecological factors as agents of natural selection.

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Philopatric

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Remaining in one's natal group or home range as an adult.

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Strategies

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Behaviors or behavioral complexes that have been favored by natural selection to increase individual reproductive fitness

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Sympatric

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Living in the same area; pertaining to two or more species whose habitats partly or largely overlap.

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Home Range

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The total area exploited by an animal or social group; usually given for 1 year — or for the entire lifetime — of an animal

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Conspecifics

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Members of the same species

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Dominance Hierarchies

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Systems of social organization wherein individuals within a group are ranked relate to one another, Higher ranking individuals have greater access to preferred food items and mating partners than do lower-ranking individuals.

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Communication

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Any act that conveys information, in the form of a message, to another individual.

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Autonomic

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Pertaining to physiological responses not under voluntary control.

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Displays

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Sequences of repetitious behaviors that serve to communicate emotional states.

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Affiliative

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Pertaining to amicable associations between individuals.

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Grooming

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Picking through fur to remove dirt, parasites, and other materials that may be present.

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K-Selection

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Pertaining to an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring, in whom they invest increased parental care.

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R-Selection

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Pertaining to an adaptive strategy that emphasizes relatively large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care.

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Sexual Selection

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A type of natural selection that operates on only one sex within a species.

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Polyandry

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A mating system wherein a female continuously associates with more than one male, with whom she mates.

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Alloparenting

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A common behavior in many primate species whereby individuals other than the parents hold, carry, and in general interact with infants

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Lovejoy's Hypothesis

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Presumed aspects of early hominid ecology, feeding, pair bonding, infant care, and food sharing to devise his creative scenario. This view hinges on these assumptions:
1. that the earlies hominids had offspring at least as K-selected as other large-bodied hominoids
2. that hominid males ranged widely and provisioned females and their young, who remained more tied to a home base
3. that males were paired monogamously with females