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471 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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teeth, tongue, gallbaladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas; produce saliva, bile, and digestive enzymes
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accessory digestive system
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digestive processes: (6)
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-ingestion
-propulsion -mechanical digestion -chemical digestion -absorption -defication |
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swallowing and peristalsis
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propulsion
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chewing, mixing, segmentation
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mechanical digestion
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catabolic reactions
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chemical digestion
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materials in the digestive system are absorbed into __
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blood/lymph
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waste removal
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defication
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covers the surface of most organs in the abdomen
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visceral peritoneum
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lines the walls of the abdomenal cavity
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parietal peritoneum
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between layers; serous fluid for lubrication of organs
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peritoneal cavity
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connects peritoneums; fused double layer of the parietal; vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
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mesentery
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branches off abdominal aorta
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splanchnic circulation
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__ recieves 1/4 of cardiac output
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splanchnic circulation
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__ recieves nutrient rich venous blood for metabolic procesing or storage
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hepatic portal circulation
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epithelial lining; simple columnar with goblet cells
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mucosa
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functions are secretion, absorbtion, and protection
-have lymph nodules |
mucosa
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thin smooth muscle layer for mucosal movements
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muscularis mucosae
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dense connective tissue containing vessels, lymph nodules, nerves and elastic fibers
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submucosa
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segmentation and peristalsis; circular and longitudinal layers, sphincters
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muscularis
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visceral peritoneum; replaced by adventitia in esophagus
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serosa
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the lips, cheeks, hard and soft palates, and uvula make up the __
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mouth (oral or buccal cavity)
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composed of muscle with papillae for friction and taste buds
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tongue
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functions of saliva (4)
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-clean mouth
-dissolve for taste -moisten and compact food -enzymes for starch digestion |
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three kinds of extrinsic salivary glands
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-parotid
-submadibular -sublingual |
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extrinsic salivary gland near the ears; serous cells only
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parotid
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__ is inflammation of the parotid salivary glands by myxovirus
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mumps
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extrinsic salivary gland made up of serous and mucous cells
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submandibular
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extrinsic salivary gland that is made up of mostly mucous cells
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sublingual
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found throughout oral cavity mucosa; serous and mucous cells
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intrinsic salivary or buccal glands
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saliva is __% water
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97-99.5
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the pH of saliva is __
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6.75-7
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what does amylase do is saliva?
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digests starch
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what does lysozyme do in saliva
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kill bacteria
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parasympathetic; strongest reaction is to acidic substances; pressorecptors activated by mechanical stimulus and pressure of food
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control of salivation
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deciduous teeth (milk or baby teeth)
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primary dentition
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2 set incisors, 1 set canines, 2 set premolars, 3 set molars
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permanent dentition
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in teeth, the __ is above the gums
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crown
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mineralized with calcium salts; hardest body structure
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enamel
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connected to crown by neck
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root
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__ attaches root to periodontal ligament
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cementum
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bonelike under enamel, surrounds pulp cavity
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dentin
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oro-and laryngopharynx
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pharynx
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through diaphragm
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esophageal hiatus
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physiological; diaphragm helps keep keep it closed
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cardia sphincter
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when part of stomach that protudes up through the diaphragm
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hiatus hernia
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what are the symptoms of a hiatus hernia
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acid reflex
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swallowing, buccal and pharyngeal-esophageal phase
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deglutition
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paste formed when food mixes with digestive juices
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chyme
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folds in lining of stomach when empty
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rugae
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regions of the stomach (4)
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-cardiac
-fundus -body -pyloric |
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controls stomach emptying
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pyloric sphincter
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mesentaries that tether stomach to other organs and body wall
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greater and lesser omentum
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simple columnar epithelium; mostly goblet cells for protective mucous secretion
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mucosa
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the submucosa of the stomach has __ muscle layers which are the __
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3, oblique, circular, longitudinal
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in the stomach, gastric pits lead into __
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gastic glands
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__ secrete gastric juice
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gastric glands
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gastric glands that secrete special mucous types (not understood)
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mucous neck cells
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gastric glands that secrete HCL and intrinsic factor
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parietal cells
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gastric glands that secrete pepsinogen, a form of pepsin
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chief cells
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gastric glands that secrete gastrin, histamine, CCK, etc.
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enteroendocrine cells
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the mucosal barrier is an __ layer
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alkaline
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in teh stomach, __ of epithelial cells prevent gastric juice from entering underlying tissues
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tight junctions
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damaged epithelial mucosa lcells in teh stomach shed and are __
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quickly replaced
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in the stomach, __ begins protein digestion
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pepsin
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in children, __ acts on milk protein casein
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renin
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alcohol and asprin pass through walls because they are __ drugs
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lipid soluble
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the only function essential to life; vitamin B12 absorbtion in intestine
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intrinsic factor
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phase of gastric secretion before food enters
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cephalic (reflex) phase
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phase of gastric secretion with distension, peptides, low acidity; gastrin due to low acidity and peptides (triggers mainly HCL)
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gastric phase
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phase of gastric secretion closes pyloric sphincter
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intestinal phase
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relaxation of muculature and plasicity of visceral smooth muscle
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response of stomach to filling
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the stomach empties within __ hours but depends on contents of duodenum
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4
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segments of the small intestine
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-duodenum (10 inches)
-jejunum (8 feet) -ileum (12 feet) |
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permanent folds of mucosa and submucosa that spiral chyme
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plicae circulares
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contain a lacteal
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villi
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form brush border, brush border enzymes
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microvilli
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the __ wall consists of absorptive cells, goblet cells, and enteroendocrine cells
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small intestine
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between villi, cells secrete intestinal juice
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interstinal crypts or crypts of lieberkuhn
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__ cells secrete lysozyme
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paneth
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__ decrease in number and throughout the length of the small intestine
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villi
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why do villi decrease in number as you go along the small intestine?
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b/c most digestive work happens before that
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-made of areolar connective tissue
-conatins peyers patches |
submucosa
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mucus secreting; in duodenum only; produce alkaline (bicarbonate rich) mucus
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duodenal (brunner's) glands
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a main sign that you are in the duodenum
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duodenal (brunners) glands
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you produce __ L of intestinal juice per day
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1-2
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distension of intestinal mucosa by hypertonic or acidic chyme stimulates __
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production of intestinal juice
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the pH of intestinal juice is __
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7.4-7.8
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the __ to duodenum carries bile
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common hepatic duct
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the __ drains the gallbladder
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cystic duct
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fusion of teh cystic and common hepatic duct
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bile duct
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emulsifies fats (like homogenizing milk) recycled
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bile salts
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bile pigment; waste product of heme portion of Hgb
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bilirubin
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__ ml of billirubin are produced a day
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500-1000
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stores bile
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gallbladder
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__ is the major stimulus for gallbladder contractions
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CCK
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__ also stimulates pancreatic juice secretion and relaxes hepatopancreatic sphincter so bile and pancreastic juice can enter duodenum
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CCK
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when there is not enough bile salts in bile to solubilize cholesterol and cholesterol crystalizes
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gallstones
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full of zymogen granules containing enzymes
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acini
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__ mL per day of pancreatic enzymes are secreted
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1200-1500
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epithelial cells of the pancrease secrete __
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bicarbonate
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trypsin (activated by enterokinase), carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin (activated by trypsin)
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pancreatic proteases
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__ is released by due to HCL in intestine; targets duct cells to release bicarbonate
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secretin
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__ is released in response to proteins and fats; stimulates enzyme release
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CCK
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three bands of longitudinal muscle
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teniae coli
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force of smooth muscle caused by these sacs
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haustra
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divisions of the large intestine (6)
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-cecum
-appendix -colon -rectum -anal canal -veriform appendix |
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4 sections of the colon
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ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
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in the __ there are no villi, plicae circulates
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large intestine
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in the __, there is a thicker mucosa and crypts deeper with many goblet cells
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large intestine
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__ ferment some of indigestible carbohydrates, releasing acids and gases
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bacterial flora of large intestine
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syntesizes B complex vitamens and ost vitain for clotting
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bacterial flora of the large intestine
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digestive processes of the large intestine (4)
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-water recovery
-propulsion -movements -deficaiton |
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major function of the large intestine
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propulsion
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slow, sementing movments every 30 min
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haustral contractions
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usually after eating dietary fiber increases strength of contractions
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mass movements or mass paristalsis
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spinal parasympathetic reflex; internal anal sphincters relax
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defication
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-the addition of water molecule to each molecular bond to be lysed
-breaks down things into their monomers or building blocks |
enzyme hydrolysis
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simple sugars that can be absorbed; glucose, fructose, and galactose
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monosaccharides
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beginning digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth and continues in the stomach
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salivary amylase
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dextrinase and glucoamylase, maltase, sucrase and lactase
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intestinal brush border enzymes
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dietary and enzyme proteins are converted to __
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amino acid monomers
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in the stomach, __ is activated into pepsin
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pepsinogen
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pepsion works best at a pH of __
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1.5-3.5
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in infants, __ takes the place of pepsinogen in the stomach for milk protein breakdown
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rennin
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__ from the panceas cleave proteins into smaller peptides
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trypsin, chymotrypsin
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pancreatic __ splits off one AA
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carboxypeptidase
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__ and __ are brush boarder enzymes
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aminopeptidase and dipeptidase
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from pancreas only, digests fat molecules
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lipases
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emulsify lipids (reduction of attraction between fat molecules so they can be dispersed better)
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bile salts
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pancreatic nucleases hydrolyze to nucleotides; brush border enzymes nucleosidases and phosphatases
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nucleic acids
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up to __ L of matter is consumed daily, but __ L reaches the large intestine
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10, 0.5-1
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most absorbtion occurs in the __ by the time it reaches the ileum
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small intestine
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the __ reclaims bile salts
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ileum
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__ is the primary mechanism of absorption
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active transport
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act as protein carriers into epithelial cells
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carbohydrates
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many different carriers in absorption, coupled to active transport of sodium
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proteins
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collections of fatty elements clustered with bile salts, move through membranes by simple diffusion
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micelles
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formed inside epithelial cells, lipoprotein droplets that are processed by Golgi apparatus for extrusion
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chylomicrons
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cannot pass through basement membrane of capillaries and enter lacteals instead
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chylomicrons
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chylomicrons are hydrolyzed in blood to free fatty acids by lipoprotein lipase
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lipoprotein lipase
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nucleic acids are __ in absroption
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carreirs
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vitamins A, D, E, and K dissolve in __
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dietary fibers
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water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by __
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diffusion
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vitamin B12 is large and binds to __(from stomach and is endocytosed in ileum)
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intrinsic factor
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iron and calcium in the duodenum; others throughout the SI
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electrolytes
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__% of water is absorbed in the __ by osmosis
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95, small intestine
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measurment of food energy values
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kilocalories
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needed by body for growth, maintenance, and repair. 6 categories.
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nutrients
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carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and water
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major nutrients
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45-50, cannort be made by the body by conversions and by be in the diet
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essential nutrients
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plants, fruits, sugar cane, sugar beets, honey, milk, grains, legumes, and roots are good sources for __
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carbohydrates
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__ is used for energy in cells
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glucose
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the __ converts most fructose and galactose to glucose
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liver
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you need at least __ g of carbohydrates per day; __% of your calories
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100, 55-60
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triglycerides, triaclyglycerols, saturated and unsaturated fats, cholesterol, and fats are all sources of __
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lipids
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__ is an essential fatty acid found in vegatable oil
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linoleic acid
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__ are used for absorbing fat-soluble vitamins
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lipids
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__ are fuel for skeletal muscles and hepatocytes
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triglycerides
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__ are used in myelin membranes
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phospholipids
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uses for fatty deposits (3)
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-cushion
-insulation -concentrated fuel source |
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lipids should be __% or less of calories. saturated fats should be <__% of diet and cholesterol <__mg/day
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30, 10, 250
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animal products have the most and best ratio of __
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essential AA's
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eggs, meat, and milk (all have AA's needed)
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complete proteins
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legumes, nuts, and cereals
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incomplete proteins
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states that all AA's for a protein must be availible in correct amounts at the same time
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all-or-none-rule
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the nitrogen balance of the body states that __=__
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protein breakdown=protein formation
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a positive nitrogen balance=
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growth, pregnancy
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a negative nitrogen balance=
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stress, low protein, starvation
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anabolic hormones like GH and sex hormones cause syntheisis while glucocorticoids enhance breakdown to glucose
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hormonal protein controls
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you need __g/Kg of body weight in proteins
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.8
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necessary for use of nutrients that are used for energy and growth/repair (carbohydrates, proteins, fats are useless without them)
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vitamins
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act with an enzyme to catalyze a reaction (usually vitamins)
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coenzymes
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vitamins usually act as __
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coenzymes
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the fat soluble vitamins are __
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A, D, E, and K
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__ vitamins are stored in the body (except for K) and can become toxic
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fat soluble
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water soluble vitamins are __
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B-complex, C
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__ are absorbed with water from intestines except B12 which must be bound to intrinisic factor
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water soluble vitamins
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excesses of water soluble vitamins are secreted in __
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urine
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-photoreceptor pigments (eyes)
-beta carotene -skin and mucosae -found in fish, liver, egg yolks, milk and margarine -important for teeth and bone |
vitamin A
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__ %of vitamin A is stored in the liver (years supply)
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90
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__ are antioxidant vitamins
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A,C,E
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-increases blood calcium
-found in fish, liver, oil, yolks, and milk -used in clotting -bones and teeth -skin converks dehydrocholesterol to D3 via UV light |
vitamin D
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-used in clotting
-syntheiszed by bacteria in thecolon; found in green vegatables |
vitamin K
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-an antioxidant
-fruits and vegatables turns cholestrol into bile salts -important for iron absorbtion |
vitamin C
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calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium, and other true minerals
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minerals
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calcium and phosphorus account for __% of the bodies minerals
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75
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iron is used in __
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Hgb
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__ maintain osmolarity, water balance, and reonsivness of excitable tissues
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ions
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__ is used in making thyroid hormones
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iodine
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vegetables, legumes, milk, and meats are all sources of __
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minerals
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sum of all biochemical reactions occurring in the body to maintain life
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metabolism
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building larger molecules
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anabolism
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breaking down large molecules
-hydrolysis, cellular respiration |
catabolism
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producing ATP; gain of O2 or loss of hydrogen
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oxidation
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oxidzied substances __ e's
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lose
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reduced substances __ e's
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gain
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oxidized substances lose energy and reduced sustances gain energy; these reactions are coupled
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RE-DOX
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enzymes that remove hydrogen
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dehydorgenases
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catalyze transfer of oxygen, most vitamins used for this
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oxidases
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mechanism of ATP synthesis where phosphate groups are transferred to ADP during glycolysis and krebs cycle
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substrate level phosphorylation
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mechanism of ATP synthesis that is much more complicated by releases in cristae; this is a chemiosomotic processs
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oxidative phosphylation
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oxidative phosphylation is a __ process
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chemiosmotic
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the chemical equation for the oxidation of glucose:
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6H20 + 6CO2 + 36 ATP + heat
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pathways of carbohydrate metabolism (3)
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-glycolysis
-krebs cycle -electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation |
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there are __ phases of glycolysis (occurs in cytosol)
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3
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10 steps to converting glucose to pyruvic acid, yields 2 ATP
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glycolysis
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glycolysis yields __ ATP
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2
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__ does not use oxygen (although there may be some presnet)
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anerobic
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in glycolysis, pyruvic acid can either enter the __ or __ depending on the level of oxygen
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kreb cycle, lactic acid
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__ formation occurs in absence of O2 because NADH + H+ must unbolt its H+ ions back on Pyruvic acids foring lactic acid
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lactic acid
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-occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
-pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters cycle -does not use oxygen, even though oxygen is presnet |
krebs cycle
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what are the end products of krebs cycle and what happens to them?
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NADH + H+, FADH2, go to the electric transport chain
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__ uses oxygen ONLY
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electron transport chain
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hydrogen ions are removed during oxidation of food fuels are combinded with oxygen and energy released atached to ADP (oxidative phosphorylation
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electron transport chain
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overall, __% of energy is captured, the rest is liberated as heat
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40
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making glycogen from glucose molecules
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glycogenesis
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occurs when glycolysis is turned off due to high ATP levels (b/c cells cannot store ATP)
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glycogenisis
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glycogenisis is done primarily in the __ and __
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liver, skeletal muscles
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results from dropping blood glucose
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glycogenolysis
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__% of energy is stored as fat, not glycogen
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80-85
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forming glucose molecules from noncarbohydrates in liver
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gluconeogenesis
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__ are composed of glycerol and fatty acid chains and are used for energy
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neutral fats
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in lipid metabolism, fatty acids are broken down to acetic acid and fused to coenzyme A to form __ (beta oxidation)
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acetyl CoA
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in lipid metabolism, Acetyl CoA enters aerobic pathways to __ and __
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CO2, water
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in lipid metabolism, glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate that undergoes __ and enters the __
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glycolysis, krebs cycle
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there is a __ of neutral fats where new ones are stored and old ones broken down and released for use
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continuous turnover
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triglyceride synthesis that occurs when cellular ATP and glucose are high
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lipogenesis
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breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids
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lipolysis
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liver, heart, and resting skeletal mucles prefer __ for energy
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fatty acids
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phospholipids are necessary for __
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membranes and myelin
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the liver make __ for transport of cholesterol, fats, etc in the blood
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lipoproteins
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the liver makes __ for blood clotting
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tissue factor
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the liver syntesizes __ from acetyl CoA
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cholesterol
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the liver uses choleserol to form __
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bile salts
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__ require cholesterol, as do membranes
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steroid hormones
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removal of amine (NH2) group
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deamination
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in amino acid oxidation, the molecule remaining after deamination is converted to __ intermediates of the krebs cycle
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pyruvic acid
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occurs on ribosomes and all amino acid must be available simultaneously
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protein synthesis
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__ is a breakdown product of amino acid oxidation
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urea
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when anabolism exceeds catabolism
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absorptive state
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the liver converts fructose and galactose to __; glucose is coverted to __ or __
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glucose, glycogen, fat
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enter lymph as chylomicrons that are hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glyerol to pass through capillary walls (via lipoprotein lipase)
|
triglycerides
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adipose, skeletal muscle, and liver use __ as energy
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triglycerides
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most of the excess __ is stored in adipose
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triglycerides
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liver deaminates some, converted to liver fat stores, used to make plasma proteins, but most remain in blood for cell uptake
|
amino acids
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__ (hormone) directs the absorptive state
|
insulin
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occurs between meals and its primary goal is to maintain blood glucose levels
|
postabsortive state
|
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sources of blood glucose: (3)
|
-glycogenolysis in liver
-glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle -lipolysin in adipose tissues and liver |
|
|
in glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles, glucose is NOT released into blood because skeletal muscles lack enzymes to dephosphorlyate glucose; pyruvic acid, enters the ciruclatoin and is recoverted to glucose in the __
|
liver
|
|
|
major source of energy when fasting
|
catabolism
|
|
|
use of noncarbohydrate fuel molecules for energy
|
glucose sparring
|
|
|
the brain uses __ by other organs shift to fatty acids for energy
|
glucose
|
|
|
after 4-5 days, the brain starts to use __
|
ketone bodies
|
|
|
the liver packages __ for storage or transort
|
fatty acids
|
|
|
the liver synthesizes __
|
plasma proteins
|
|
|
the liver forms __ and converts ammonia to urea
|
nonessential AA's
|
|
|
the liver stores glucose as glycogen (short term) and regulates __
|
blood sugar
|
|
|
the liver stores __
|
vitamins
|
|
|
the liver conserves __
|
ions
|
|
|
the liver degrades __
|
hormones
|
|
|
detoxification happens in the __
|
liver
|
|
|
made of bile salts, steroids, vitamin D, plasma membranes
|
cholesterol
|
|
|
__% of cholesterol is made by CoA, __% is dietary
|
85, 15
|
|
|
triglycerides and cholesterol must be boud to __ for transport
|
lipoproteins
|
|
|
HDL stands for __
|
high-density lipoproteins
|
|
|
composed of more protein than other lipoproteins
|
HDL's
|
|
|
made of phospholipids and cholesterol
|
HDL's
|
|
|
these transport of cholesterol to liver to become part of bile
|
HDL's
|
|
|
__ proteins "envelopes" are formed, enter blood, and draw cholestrol from tissues, "pulling" it from artery walls
|
HDL
|
|
|
the "good" lipoprotein because cholesterol being transported is destined for degradation
|
HDL's
|
|
|
LDL stand for __
|
low-desnsity lipoprotein
|
|
|
transport to tissues (bad cholestrol) lipprotein A is VERY BAD, promotes plaque formation
|
LDL
|
|
|
__ inhibits the liver synthesis but liver still makes a usual amount
|
high dietary cholestrol
|
|
|
composed primarily of lipids
|
very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)
|
|
|
__ stimulate hepatic synthesis and inhibit secretion of plasma cholesterol (animal fats and coconut oil)
|
saturated fatty acids
|
|
|
__ enhance excretion of cholestorol and catabolism of bile salts (reduces plasma levels)
|
unsaturated fatty acids
|
|
|
__ in cold water fish lower proportions of saturated fats and choelsterol and make platelets less sticky
|
omega-3 fatty acids
|
|
|
cigarettes, coffee, and stress increase __
|
LDL's
|
|
|
energy uptake=
|
digested foods
|
|
|
__% of energy is lost as heat
|
60%
|
|
|
energy is used to do __
|
work
|
|
|
energy is stored as __ or __
|
fat, glycogen
|
|
|
__ depresses hunger, __ stimulates it
|
insulin and epinepherin, glucagon and CCK
|
|
|
increased body temp may inhibit __
|
eating
|
|
|
in body energy balance, __ may override other factors
|
psychological
|
|
|
total heat produced by all chemical reactions and mechanical work of body
|
metabolic rate
|
|
|
when a person enters calorimerter and heat is absorbed by water circulating around
|
direct method
|
|
|
when a respirometer measures oxygen consumption, proportional to heat production
|
indirect method
|
|
|
postabsorbtive state (fast 12 hours), recling, relaxed, energy the body needs for essential activities only
|
basal metabolic rate
|
|
|
factors in BMR (5)
|
-body surface area
-gender -age -stress -hormones |
|
|
__ increases oxygen consumption of cells
|
thyroxine
|
|
|
BMR declines with age because of atrophy of __
|
skeletal muscles
|
|
|
metabolism, muscular activity (shirvering), T4, epinepherine, and temperature are all sources of __
|
heat
|
|
|
__, __, __, and __ are all sources of heat loss
|
radiation, conduction/convection, evaoration
|
|
|
the core temperature is __ than shell and is __
|
higher, precisely regulated
|
|
|
loss of heat in form of infrared waves (thermal energy)
|
radiation
|
|
|
__ of heat is lost in radiation
|
1/2
|
|
|
transfer of heat to objects (direct contact) or air
|
conductin/convection
|
|
|
__% of body heat is lost by conduction/convection
|
15/20
|
|
|
water absorbs heat before vaporizing
|
evaporation
|
|
|
2 kinds of perspiration
|
insesnsible and sensible
|
|
|
evaporation lost from lungs, mouth, and skin; insensible heat loss accompanies
|
insensible perspiration
|
|
|
__% of heat is lost due to insensible perspiraiton
|
10
|
|
|
active perspiration, 1-2 L/hour can be produced, removing 600-1200 Kcal per hour. (30x that of insensible)
|
sensible perspiration
|
|
|
heat loss and heat promoting centers in teh hypothalamus
|
thermoregulatory centers
|
|
|
__ are found in the peripheral (skin) and central (blood) and sense temperature changes
|
termoreceptors
|
|
|
frostbite is due to prolonged __
|
vasoconstriction
|
|
|
cold stimulates __ which stimulates chemical or nonshivering thermogenesis
|
NE
|
|
|
__ stimulate TRH
|
cold seasons
|
|
|
clothes, hot fluids, posture, and activity are __ modifications
|
behavioral
|
|
|
heat-promoting mechanisms (5)
|
-vasoconstriction
-increase in metabolic rate -shivering -enhanced thyroxine release -behavioral modifications |
|
|
heat-loss mechanisms
|
-vasodilation of cutaneous vessels
-enhanced sweating -behavioral |
|
|
__ is caused by hyperthermia; increased metabolic rate, heat production
|
heat stroke
|
|
|
excess of body heat
|
hyperthermia
|
|
|
controlled hyperthermia coaused by pyrogens released from WBC's injured cells, MO's
|
fever
|
|
|
functions of the urinary system (6)
|
-filter blood
-excretion -regulate fluid composition and volume -renin production -erythropoietin production -metabolize viatmin D to active form |
|
|
__ controls blood pressure regulation
|
renin
|
|
|
__ controls RBC production
|
eyrthropoietin
|
|
|
organs of the urniary system (4)
|
-kidneys
-ureters -urinary bladder -urethera |
|
|
leads to renal sinus; ureters, vessels, lymphatics and nerves
|
renal hilus
|
|
|
fibrous; attached to the surface of teh kidney
|
renal capsule
|
|
|
holds the kidney in place, cushions it
|
adipose capsule
|
|
|
medullary or renal pyramids seperated by renal columns
|
renal medulla
|
|
|
one pyarmid and cap of cortical tissue
|
lobe
|
|
|
there are __lobes per kidney
|
8
|
|
|
-continuous with ureter
-braches form three major calyces that divide to form minor calyces |
renal pelvis
|
|
|
renal arteries pump __ of the total systemic CO to kidneys each minute
|
1/4
|
|
|
__ enter the renal hilus
|
segmental arteries
|
|
|
there are __ between pyramids
|
interlobular arteries
|
|
|
interlobular arteries supply cortical tissue; __% of blood enters the cortex where nephrons are
|
90
|
|
|
nerve supply of the kidney
|
renal plexus
|
|
|
capillary knot attached to renal tubule; endothelium is fenestrated (porous)
|
glomerulus
|
|
|
__ are opeinings between foot processes of podocytes
|
filtration slits
|
|
|
made of cuboidal cells that rebsorb and secrete
|
proximal convoluted tubules
|
|
|
proximal convoluted tubules are covered in __ and have many __
|
microvilli, mitochondria
|
|
|
why are there microvilli on proximal convoluted tubules
|
to increase SA
|
|
|
why do proximal convoluted tubules need lots of mitochondria
|
they use active transport
|
|
|
ascending and descending limbs
|
loop of henle
|
|
|
the __ segment of the loop of henle is made of simple squamous epithlium
|
thin
|
|
|
the thin segment of the loop of henle is __
|
water permeable
|
|
|
the __ segment is made of cells that are cuboidal or columnar in asceding limbs
|
thick
|
|
|
made of cuboidal cells, no microvilli present, thinner, used for secretion
|
distal convoluted tubule
|
|
|
__ receive urine from many nephrons
|
collecting ducts
|
|
|
__ form from fusion of collecting ducts
|
papillary ducts
|
|
|
the two types of nephrons
|
-cortical
-juxtamedullary |
|
|
-85% of nephrons
-almost entirely found in the cortex |
cortical nephrons
|
|
|
-nephrons whose loops of henle drop deep into the medulla
-are important for urine concentration |
juxtamedually nephrons
|
|
|
juxtamedullary nephrons are important for __
|
urine concentration
|
|
|
what are the two types of capillary beds of the nephrons?
|
glomerulus and peritubular capillaries
|
|
|
supply the glomerulus with blood
|
afferent and efferent arterioles
|
|
|
the __ arteriole has a larger diameter for greater pressure
|
afferent
|
|
|
__ have high resistance capillaries
|
afferent and efferent arterioles
|
|
|
the large diameter of the afferent and smaller diameter of the efferent arterioles produce great pressure in glomerulus that __
|
forces fluid and solutes out
|
|
|
__ capillaries arise form efferent arterioles and cling to renal tubules; used for absorbtion
|
peritubular
|
|
|
__ extends into the medulla and parallel loops of Henle of the juxtamedullary nephrons
|
vasta recta
|
|
|
a point where DCT lies against the afferent and efferent arterioles
|
juxtaglomerular apparatus
|
|
|
have granules that contain renin; mechanoreceptors that sense blood pressure in afferent arterioles
|
granular juxtaglomerular (JG) cells
|
|
|
how do the kidney's regulate blood pressure?
|
granular juxtaglomerular cells
|
|
|
group of tubule cells next to JG cells; resond to changes in solute content of fitrate to regulate solute concentration
|
macula densa
|
|
|
glomerular filtration is due to __
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
|
|
there are __ layers to the filtration membrane
|
3
|
|
|
the three layers of the filtration membrane
|
-fenestrated glomerular endothelium (capillarires)
-visceral membrane of glomerular capsule (podocytes) -basement membrane or fused basal laminas of two above layers |
|
|
what is the most pourus layer of the filtration membrane?
|
fenesrated glomerular endothelium
|
|
|
the __ is the least porus layer of the filtration membrane
|
basement membrane (fused basla laminas)
|
|
|
__ and __ are not allowed through the filtration membrane but water, amino acids, glucose, nitrogenous wastes are.
|
larger proteins and blood cells
|
|
|
__ is the size cut off for the filtration membrane
|
3 nm
|
|
|
golmerular blood pressure; forces water and solutes OUT of the blood (favors filtration) 60 mm Hg
|
glomerular hydrostatic pressure
|
|
|
colloid osmotic pressure of plasma proteins (28 mmHg); opposes filtration
|
glomerular osmotic pressure
|
|
|
created by the fluids in teh capsule (usually 15 mmHg) opposes filtration
|
capsular hydrostatic pressure
|
|
|
net filtration pressure=
|
glomerular hydrostatic pressure - (glomerular osmotic pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure)
|
|
|
total amount of filtrate formed per minute
|
glomeruluar filtration rate
|
|
|
factors affecting glomerular filtration rate (3)
|
-total surface area available for filtration
-filtration membrane permeability -net filtration pressure |
|
|
__ mL/min of liquid is filtered
|
120-125
|
|
|
__ L/day of liquid is filtered
|
180
|
|
|
glomerular filtration rate is directly proportional to __
|
net filtration pressure
|
|
|
a __% drop in glomerular pressure will stop filtration completely
|
15
|
|
|
2 kinds of extrinsic controls of glomerular filtration rate
|
-sympathetic nervous system
-renin-angiotensin mechanism |
|
|
constriction of afferent arterioles due to NE and E and stimulation of JG cells to renin increases __
|
systematic blood pressure
|
|
|
JG cells release __ which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which is converted to angiotensin II by enzymes in tissues, especially the __
|
renin, lungs
|
|
|
angiotensin II is a vasoconstrictor that increases __ and causes __ to be released
|
systemic blood pressure, aldosterone
|
|
|
what will aldosterone do to blood pressure?
|
increase it
|
|
|
the total blood volume passes into tubules every __ min
|
45
|
|
|
reclaiming fluids and solutes in the tubules
|
tubular reabsorption
|
|
|
tubular reabsorption happens in __ and __ processes
|
active and passive
|
|
|
reabsorption that moves across electrical and chemical gradients with ATP dependent carriers
|
active reabsorption
|
|
|
area during active reabsorpiton where things move in easily
|
peritubular capillaires
|
|
|
80% of active transport energy is used to transport __
|
Na+
|
|
|
reflects number of carriers in tubules available
|
transport maximum
|
|
|
during active reabsorption, __ are reabsorbed by pinocytosis in the PCT
|
plasma proteins
|
|
|
consists of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis
|
passive reabsorption
|
|
|
__ reabsorption provides the gradient for most passive reabsorption
|
active Na+
|
|
|
states that water follows salt
|
obligatory water reabsorption
|
|
|
solutes follow movment of solvent, urea, lipid-soluble substances, fatty acids
|
solvent drag
|
|
|
nonreabsorbed substances
|
-urea
-creatinine -uric acid |
|
|
why are urea, creatinine, and uric acid not reabsorbed? (3)
|
-lack carriers
-not liquid soluble -too large to pass through plasma membrane pores of tubular cells |
|
|
__ is not reabsorbed at all so it is used to determine GFR
|
creatinine
|
|
|
__ is the most active part in reabsorption
|
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
|
|
|
in the proximal convoluted tubule, __ is reabsorbed but later secreted
|
uric acid
|
|
|
in teh loop of henle, __ leaves the descending limb but cannot leave the imprermeable ascending layer
|
water
|
|
|
__% of NaCl and __% of water remain when filtrate reaches the DCT
|
10, 20
|
|
|
__ affects the DCT ad collecting duct depending on bodies needs (ADH and aldosterone)
|
hormonal controls
|
|
|
during __, hydrogen, K+ ions, creatinine, ammonium ions, organic acids, move into the filtrate
|
tubular secretion
|
|
|
the role of tubular secretion is to: (4)
|
-dispose of drugs
-eliminate urea and uric acid -excrete K+ ions -control blood pH |
|
|
when body pH is low, __ are secreted and HCO3- and K+ are retained
|
H+
|
|
|
if the body's pH is high __ are reabsorbed and bicarbonate is left in urine
|
Cl-
|
|
|
solute particles in one liter of water; reflects ability to cause osmosis
|
osmolarity
|
|
|
what does osmolarity mean?
|
how many particels are dissolved in a fluid
|
|
|
.001 osmol or .001 moles nonionizing substance in one liter of water
|
miliosmol
|
|
|
plasma is __ mosm
|
300
|
|
|
fluid entering the PCT is __ mosm and increases to __ mosm in teh medulla
|
300, 1200
|
|
|
flow of fluid in the coutercurrent multiplication
|
descending limb--->ascending limb--->collecitng ducts--->vasa recta
|
|
|
in teh countercurrent multiplication, in teh desceding limb, water passes out and filtrate osmolatiry __
|
increases
|
|
|
in teh ascending limb during the countercurrent mechanism, the thick segment actibely reabsorbes NaCl into interstitial fluid, __ osmolarity
|
decreases
|
|
|
in teh collecting ducts during countercurrent mechanism, the fluid goes deep into the medulla where it is permeabel to urea and it diffuses into interstitial fluid and contrubutes to __ osmolarity
|
high
|
|
|
countercurrent exchanger that maintains osmotic gradient while delivering nutrient blood supply to cells; blood flow is very slow in this.
|
vasa recta
|
|
|
teh vasa recta recieves only about __% of renal blood supply
|
10%
|
|
|
urine is diluted in the __
|
ascending limb
|
|
|
unless __ is secreated, urinie is dilute because collecting ducts are impermeable to wtaer while ions can still be removed by AT or passive mecahnisms
|
ADH
|
|
|
increases number of water filled channels in preinicap cells of teh collecting duct
|
ADH
|
|
|
__% of water can be reabosrbed
|
99
|
|
|
reabsorption that depends on ADH
|
facultative water reabsorption
|
|
|
during the formation of concentrated urine, the __ of the filtrate becomes euqal to the __; water leaves filtrate in medulla due to hypertonicity.
|
osmolarity, intersitial fluid
|
|
|
the formation of concentrated urine is impaired if __ because less urea is produced and therefore the medulla is less hypertonic
|
malnourished
|
|
|
encances urinary output
|
diruetics
|
|
|
any substance that is not reabsorbed or exceeds the ability of tubules to reabsorb will act as an __ and carry water out with it
|
osmotic diuretic
|
|
|
__ promotes renal vasodilation and increases GFR
|
cafeine
|
|
|
caffeine can __ urine oupute
|
increase
|
|
|
__ inhibits ADH
|
alcohol
|
|
|
volume of plasma from which a partical or stubstance is completely clearned by kindyes in a given time, usually 1 min
|
renal clearnace
|
|
|
used to determine GFR to determine functioning of kidneys, detect renal damage
|
renal clearance
|
|
|
renal clearance=
|
concentration of flow x flow rate of urine formation / concentration of substance in plasma
|
|
|
__ is used to determine GFR because it is not reabsorbed, sotred, or secreted
|
inulin
|
|
|
if renal clearance is __ than reabsorption is complete
|
zero
|
|
|
if renal clearnace is greater than __, it is being secreted
|
inulin
|
|
|
a clearance value less than that of inulin means that it is __
|
partially reabsorbed
|
|
|
__ causes the yellow color of urine
|
urochrome
|
|
|
-foods
-abnormal presence of bile pigments, or blood -drugs -vitamins all may cause different __ in urine |
color and transparancy
|
|
|
vitamins may cause __ or other colored urine
|
pink
|
|
|
cloudy urine may indicate an __
|
infection
|
|
|
drugs, vegatables, deseases may alter usually ammonaia __
|
smell
|
|
|
urine has a pH of __ but diet can alter it
|
6
|
|
|
urine's __ is more dense than distilled water due to solutes
|
specific gravity
|
|
|
urine is __% water and __% solutes
|
95, 5
|
|
|
urea comes from __ breakdown
|
amino acid
|
|
|
plood prteins, RBC's glucose, Hb, WBC's, and bile pigments would all be __ of urine
|
abnormal constituents
|
|
|
the walls of teh ureters are composed of __, __, and __
|
mucosa, muscularis, and adentitia
|
|
|
responsible for the transport of urine from kidneys to bladder
|
ureters
|
|
|
when calcium ,magnesium, or uric acid salts crystalize in renal pelvis; can block the ureter
|
renal calculi
|
|
|
area bounded by ureters and urethra; most urinary infections occur here
|
trigone
|
|
|
most urinary infections are in the __
|
trigone
|
|
|
the wall of the urinary bladder is a mucosa made of __
|
transitional epithelium
|
|
|
the urniary bladder has __ layers
|
3
|
|
|
muscular layer of teh bladder, inner, outer, and middle layers of smooth muscle
|
detrusor muscle
|
|
|
bladder-urethra junction, made out of smooth muscle, involuntary
|
internal urethral sphincter
|
|
|
surrounds the urethra where it passes through the pelvic floor; skeletal muscle
|
external urethral sphincter
|
|
|
in females, the urethra is __ cm long and bound to the vaginal wall
|
3-4
|
|
|
in males, the urethra is __ cm long and also carries semen out
|
20
|
|
|
the male urethra is made out of 3 parts. they are:
|
-prostatic (2.5 cm)
-membranous (2 cm) -spongy or penile (15 cm) |
|
|
why do women get more urniary tract infections than men?
|
because they have shorter urethras.
|
|
|
afferent impulses to sacral cord and efferent impulses back to the bladder via parasympathetic __ that cause detrusor muscle to contract and teh internal sphincter to relax
|
pelvic sphlanchinc nerves
|
|
|
__ forces stored urine through teh sphincter into the upper urethra
|
increasing contractions
|
|
|
__ impulses to the brain give you the urge to go
|
afferent
|
|
|
__ is controlled until you "want" to go
|
external sphincter
|
|
|
lack of bladder control
|
incontinence
|
|
|
bladder unable to expel urine; anestheisa cuases, prostate problems, etc. catheterization required to empty the bladder
|
urniary retention
|
|
|
the hormone secretin functions to convert __ to __
|
trypsinogen into trypsin
|
|
|
a process that, if oxygen is lacking, the products will inculde lactic acid
|
glycolysis
|
|
|
a process that produces most of the bodies ATP
|
electron transport chain
|
|
|
Movement of amino acids, glucose, etc. into the blood from the digestive tract is called ___.
|
absorption
|
|
|
What process of carbohydrate metabolism uses oxygen and makes 34 ATP
|
Oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain
|
|
|
Site where ADH affects the nephron
|
Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
|
