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324 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
blood is made of connective tissue in which ___ are suspended in ___.
|
formed elements, plasma
|
|
red blood cells
|
erythrocytes
|
|
found in buffy coat between plasma and RBC layers in hematocrit
|
leukocytes
|
|
cell fragments that help in blood clotting, also found in buffy coat in hematocrit
|
platelets
|
|
% of RBC's in sample of blood
|
hematocrit
|
|
normal % of RBC's in total blood volume
|
45%
|
|
plasma is __% of the whole blood volume
|
55%
|
|
sticky, opaque, with a metallic taste
|
blood
|
|
blood has a pH of __
|
7.35-7.45 (fairly neutral)
|
|
blood is __% of body weight
|
8%
|
|
there are __ L of blood in men and __ liters of blood in women
|
5-6, 4-5
|
|
functions of blood
|
-distribution
-regulation -protection |
|
what does blood distribute?
|
-oxygen and nutrients
-wastes to lungs and kidneys -hormones to target tissue |
|
what does blood regulate
|
-body temperature
-pH -fluid volume; minerals, blood protiens |
|
how does blood regulate pH?
|
proteins, etc. act as buffers; "alkaline reserve" of bicarbonate ions
|
|
blood protiens
|
albumin
|
|
how does blood protect the body?
|
-clot formation to prevent blood loss
-preventing infection (Ab's, WBC's) |
|
blood plasma is __% water
|
90%
|
|
made up of mostly water; 100+ solutes including nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes, ions, and proteins
|
plasma
|
|
plasma proteins are __% volume by weight.
|
8
|
|
60% of plasma proteins; carrier molecule, buffer, plasma osmotic pressure with Na+
|
albumin
|
|
albumin is __% of proteins in blood
|
60
|
|
blood plasma contains __ kinds of protein
|
-albumin
-clotting proteins -globulins |
|
proteins that are antibodies (fight infection). found in plasma
|
globulins
|
|
only __ are complete cells in blood
|
leukocytes
|
|
most formed elements (cells) survive only for a few days because ___
|
most are macrophages
|
|
most formed elements (cells) do not divide. how are they reproduced?
|
in the red bone marrow
|
|
-biconcave disk
-anucleate with essentially no organelles -flexible, stackable -lack mitochondria -major factor in blood viscosity |
Erythrocytes
|
|
fills 97% of available space in a erythrocyte (RBC), responsible for gas transport
|
hemoglobin
|
|
each heme group has an __ that can combine with O2
|
iron set
|
|
there are 250 million Hb molecules per RBC and each can carry four oxygen molecules so each RBC can carry __ molecules of O2
|
1 billion
|
|
why is hemoglobin in the RBC's instead of free in the plasma?
|
to make blood more efficient with movement
|
|
hemoglobin bonded to oxygen (bright red)
|
oxygemoglobin
|
|
hemoglobin without oxygen, dark red
|
deoxyhemoglobin
|
|
CO2 bound to amino acids (not Hb)
|
carbaminohemoglobin
|
|
has a greater affinity for the O2 binding molecule on hemoglobin and therefore displaces oxygen
|
Carbon monoxide (CO)
|
|
-must be placed in a hyperbaric chamber to rid the body of this.
-if not, death due to lack of oxygen to the tissues |
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
|
|
RBC formation
|
erythropoiesis
|
|
occurs in the red bone marrow of the bones of the axial skeleton, girdles, and proximal epiphyses of femur and humerous
|
eythropoiesis (RBC formation)
|
|
where is tissue taken for a bone marrow transplant?
|
coxal (hip) bones
|
|
hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells) are found in the __
|
red bone marrow
|
|
Erythropoiesis takes __
|
3-5 days
|
|
What hormone controls eyrthropoiesis?
|
eyrthropoietin (EPO)
|
|
__ and __ produce erythropoietin when oxygen is low
|
kidneys and liver
|
|
EPO stimulates red marrow RBC's to __
|
mature more rapidly
|
|
__% of iron is in hemoglobin
|
65
|
|
what three substances are required for EBO? (also recommended for pregnant women)
|
-iron
-vitamin B12 -folic acid |
|
what is the lifespan of a RBC?
|
100-120 days
|
|
the __ traps many dead or dying RBC's
|
spleen
|
|
most iron from dead/dying RBC's is __
|
recycled
|
|
abnormally low O2 carrying capacity; symptom of a disorder
|
anemias
|
|
low RBC numbers due to bone marrow destruction
|
aplastic anemia
|
|
low RBC numbers due to blood loss
|
hemorhagic anemias
|
|
low RBC numbers due to rupture b/c they are defective
|
hemolytic anemias (sickle cell)
|
|
tiredness, headaches, fatigue, sleepiness are all symptoms of what?
|
anemia
|
|
decreased Hb counts due to lack/loss of iron
|
iron-deficiency anemia
|
|
decreased Hb counts due to increased blood volume following exercise
|
athletes anemia
|
|
decreased Hb counts due to vitamin B12/intrinsic factor (something produced in the stomach)
|
pernicious anemia
|
|
decreased Hb counts due to genetics
|
abnormal hemoglobin
|
|
HbS is formed and becomes spiky when O2 deprived; very painful. treated with blood tranfusions
|
sickle-cell anemia
|
|
-less than 1% of blood volume
-diapedesis -move in amoeboid motion -positive chemotaxis -seperated in to granulocytes and agranuloctyes |
leukocytes
|
|
means WBC's have the ability to permeate into capillaries
|
Diapedesis
|
|
means WBC's are attracted to certain chemicals released by damaged cells or other WBC's
|
positive chemotaxis
|
|
when WBC count >11,000/mm3; normal response to invasions/infections
|
leukocytosis
|
|
types of granulocytes
|
-neutrophils
-eosinophis -basophils |
|
types of agranuloctyes
|
-lymphocytes
-monocytes |
|
-most numerous kind of WBC
-granuloctyes, two types of granules; difficult to see -defensins -polymorphonuclear (3-6 lobes in nucleus) -chemically attracted to areas of inflammation; active phagocytes -very effective against bacteria |
neutrophils
|
|
antibiotic-like proteins in smaller granules
|
defensins
|
|
1-4% of WBC's
-blue-red nucleus with two lobes and large coarse red granules -digestive enzymes in granules -destroy parasitic worms (flat worms, round worms) increased #'s with asthma, hayfevor |
eosinophils
|
|
-most rare kind of WBC
-large purple granules that contain histamine (used for allergies) |
basophils
|
|
-second most numerous WBC (25%)
-nucleus fills most of the cytoplasm -small percentage in blood; most in lymphoid tissues |
lymphocytes
|
|
-largest WBC
-U shaped nucleus -become macrophages in tissues (destroy foreign entities |
monocytes
|
|
the production of WBC's stimulated by chemicals from other cells
|
leukopoiesis
|
|
-WBC's that have a shorter lifespan (1/2 to 9 days)
-production hormonally stimulated by chemicals from T cells and others |
granulocytes
|
|
why do granulocytes have a shorter lifespan then agranulocytes?
|
b/c its in response to something that is short term
|
|
WBC that may live for months to years
|
agranulocytes
|
|
why is it important that agranulocytes live a long time?
|
they are memory cells and create immunity
|
|
-cancer of WBC's
-WBC's remain unspecialized and mitotic and suppress normal bone marrow functions -acute and chronic types |
leukemias
|
|
what is the probable cause of an increased number of neutrophils?
|
bacterial infection
|
|
what is the probable cause of an increased number of basophils?
|
allergies
|
|
what is the probable cause of a decreased number of monocytes?
|
healthiness
|
|
-cytoplasmic fragments
-contain chemicals that act in clotting process |
platelets
|
|
hormone that stimulates production of platelets
|
thrombopoietin
|
|
the three phases of hemostasis
|
1. vascular spasm
2. platelet plug formation 3. coagulation |
|
constriction of blood vessels
|
vasoconstriction
|
|
what causes vasoconstriction
|
injury to smooth muscle of vessel walls
|
|
what kind of feedback is platelet plug formation?
|
positive
|
|
steps of platelet plug formation
|
1.endothelium damage exposes collagen fibers
2. platelets swell and form spiked processes, bocome sticky and adhere to collagen 3. serotonin enhances vascular spasm |
|
-many steps
-involves more then 30 substances -procoagulants (I-XIII) and anitcoagulants (normally dominate) |
coagulation (blood clotting)
|
|
Phase 1 of coagulation
|
Intrinsic pathway: (contact activation) triggered by negatively charged surfaces (platelets, collagen, glass)
Extrinsic pathway: triggered by exposure to tissue factor in damaged endothelium |
|
phase 2: (common pathway)
|
prothrombin activator catalyzes prothrobin-------->thrombin
|
|
phase 3: (common pathway)
|
fibrinogen (from liver)------->fibrin
|
|
clot formation completes in __ min; extrinsic pathway is __
|
3-6, faster
|
|
contractile protein complex in platelets that contracts and pulls on fibrin strands, squeezing serum from mass
|
actomyosin
|
|
released by degranulation stimulates smooth muscle and fibroblasts to divide and rebuild wall
|
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
|
|
fibrin-digesting enzyme produced when plasminogen (blood protein) is activated
|
plasmin
|
|
__ is inactive until signal from tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)
|
plasminogen
|
|
begins within two days of clot retraction and repair and continues over several days
|
fribrinolysis
|
|
what are two primary factors limiting clot growth
|
-removal of coagulation factors
-inhibition of activated factors |
|
clotting factors must __ before clotting can occur (so it does not occur in moving blood, where factors are diluted and washed away)
|
accumulate
|
|
thromboembolytic condition where there is a clot in an intact vessel
|
thrombus
|
|
thromboembolytic condition where there is a free floating clot
|
embolus
|
|
what does asprin and warfarin (coumadin) do?
|
thin blood
|
|
bleeding disorder due to platelet deficiency
|
thrombocytopenia
|
|
-bleeding disorder
-types A and B -deficiency of clotting factors VIII and IX -sex-linked recessive |
hemophilia
|
|
RBC's have __ on the surface
|
antigens
|
|
__ and __ are most important in transfusions
|
ABO and Rh
|
|
preformed antibodies that act RBC's carrying agglutinogens when pressent on the RBC
|
agglutinins
|
|
-universal recipiant
-1-4% of population |
type AB blood
|
|
11-20% of whites and blacks
|
type B blood
|
|
27% of whites, 40% of blacks
|
type A blood
|
|
-universal donar
-45% whites, 49% blacks, 79% native americans |
type O blood
|
|
where does Rh come from?
|
the rhesus monkeys
|
|
__% of the population are Rh+
|
85
|
|
__ antibodies are only formed in blood upon exposure
|
Rh
|
|
-a condition in which a baby is born anemic and hypoxic due to mothers Rh antibodies crossing placenta and attacking the babies blood
-tranfusions should be done before birth and one or two exchange transfusions after birth |
erythroblastosis fetalis
|
|
-donor RBC's attacked by recipients agglutinins
-clumping of RBC's leads to RBC rupture and Hb release -may cause decreased O2-carrying capacity and clumping of RBC's may hinder blood flow -Hb in bloodstream passes into kidney tubules, precipitating and blooking---->renal shutdown -fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, toxicity (not lethal) |
transfusion reactions
|
|
__ is done prior to blood transfusions
|
blood typing
|
|
what can tell you a person might be anemic?
|
pale, low hematocrit
|
|
what can tell you a person might be suffering from lipidemia?
|
yellowish blood (fat in bloodstream)
|
|
this can tell you things like large amounts of eosinophils indicate parasitic infection or allergic response
|
Differential WBC count
|
|
amount of prothrombin in the blood (shows clotting activity)
|
prothrombin time
|
|
cavity of the thorax where the heart is found
|
mediastinum
|
|
inferior tip of the heart that points to the left
|
apex
|
|
anterior tip of the heart, attachments here (top)
|
base
|
|
double layered fibroserous sac covering the heart
|
pericardim
|
|
outer-most covering of heart; protects and anchors heart to other structures and prevents overfilling
|
fibrous pericardium
|
|
covering of heart made of the parietal layer and visceral layer (epicardium)
|
serous pericardium
|
|
part of the visceral layer that is part of the heart wall
|
visceral layer (epicardium)
|
|
lines the chambers and covers valves
|
endocardium
|
|
flaps of atria that are visible
|
auricles
|
|
why is there a fossa ovalis in the heart
|
b/c in fetus heats, the blood does not need to pump through the heart.
|
|
what is important about pulmonary veins?
|
they are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood
|
|
ridges of muscle in the ventricle
|
trabeculae carnae
|
|
connected to valves, make valves one way
|
papillary muscles
|
|
__ and __ take blood away from the heart
|
pulmonary trunk and aorta take blood away from the heart
|
|
__ take deoxygenated blood to the heart
|
veins
|
|
take oxygenated blood to the body
|
arteries
|
|
what is unique about the pulmonary arteries?
|
only artery that pumps deoxygenated blood
|
|
valve between right atrium and ventricle
|
tricuspid valve
|
|
valve between left atrium and ventricle
|
bicuspid (mitral) valve
|
|
what is the function of the valves?
|
to prevent blood from going into the atrium when the ventricle contacts
|
|
anchor valves to papillary muscles (to make valve one way)
|
chordae tendineae
|
|
open when ventricles contract
|
pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves
|
|
the heart is __ of the body weight but uses __ of the blood supply (more to left ventricle
|
1/200, 1/20
|
|
deficiency of blood to myocardium
|
angina pectoris
|
|
what does nitroglycerin do?
|
dialates blood vessels
|
|
prolonged coronary artery blockage (heart attack)
|
myocardial infraction
|
|
a clot in the left anterior descending artery causing immediate death
|
widow maker
|
|
Where veins join, empties into the right atrium
|
coronary sinus
|
|
-short, flat, branching, interconnected cells with one or two nuclei
-large, numerous mitochondria (25% of volume) for energy -dependent on oxygen and aerobic respiration -can burn glucose, fatty acids, even lactic acid |
cardiac muscle
|
|
allow ions to pass between cardiac muscle cells because of gap junctions
|
intercalated discs
|
|
due to gap junctions, fibers are electrically coupled and behave as a unit
|
functional syncytium
|
|
__% of cardiac muscle cells are autorythmic (fire on their own)and the rest are contractile muscle fibers
|
1%
|
|
-slow calcium channels (causes plateau in AP)
-all-or-none-law (applies at organ level but not cellular due to gap junctions) -autorhythmicity or automaticity (some cells are self-excitable and initiate depolarization) longer absolute refractory period prevents tetanic contractions |
differences in cardiac from skeletal muscle
|
|
noncontractile cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulses
|
intrinsic conduction system
|
|
-unstable resting potential due to gradual reduced permeability to K+ while Na+ continues to diffuse into cell
-pacemaker potentials -K+ leaving causes repolarization |
action potentials of autorhythmic cells
|
|
spontaneously changing membrane potentials that cause contraction
|
pacemaker potentials
|
|
excitation tract
|
SA node-->AV node-->AV bundle-->bundle branches-->purkinje fibers
|
|
in the right atrial wall; 75x per minute (fastest); that determines sunus rhythm
|
Sinoatrial (SA) node
|
|
delays 1 second so the atria can contract. fibers are smaller in diameter
|
Atrioventricular (AV) node
|
|
only connection between atria and ventricles
|
AV bundle (bundle of His)
|
|
cause ventricle depolarization; more on the left side (more muscle) supply papilary muscle first
|
purkinje fibers
|
|
irregular heart rhythms
|
arrhythmias
|
|
rapid, out of phase contractions
|
fibrillation
|
|
damage to AV node (1rst, 2nd, 3rd degree)
|
heart block
|
|
-cardioacceleratory center in medulla of brain
-cardioinhibitory center in medulla |
extrinsic innervation
|
|
what 3 waves make up an ECG or EKG
|
-P wave
-QRS complex -T wave |
|
deflection wave of EKG that represents the depolarization of the atria
|
P wave
|
|
deflection wave of EKG that represents the ventricular depolarization (atrial repolarization
|
QRS complex
|
|
deflection wave of EKG that represents the ventricular repolarization (slower then deplarization)
|
T wave
|
|
at what point do the atria contract?
|
right after the p wave
|
|
at what point do the ventricles contract?
|
between the R and S
|
|
the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
|
systole
|
|
the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle
|
diastole
|
|
all events associated with flow of blood in one heartbeat (atrial and ventricular systole and diastole)
|
cardiac cycle
|
|
low BP in heart; 70% of ventricular filling then atrial systole following P wave
|
ventricular filling (mid to late diastole)
|
|
completely closed for split second and constant volume (isometric contraction phase) followed by opening of semilunar valves and ventricular ejection phase
|
ventricular systole
|
|
following T wave; dicrotic notch caused by short rise in aortic pressure when semilunar valve closes (ventricles totally close)
|
isovolumetric relaxation (early diastole)
|
|
total heart relaxation
|
quiescent period
|
|
the first of the heart sounds (lub):
|
closure of AV valves; onset of sytole; loudest sound
|
|
the second of the heart sounds (dub):
|
closing of semilunar valves during diastole
|
|
abnormal sounds; obstruction causes turbulence; incomplete valves (swishing) (pulmonary stenosis)
|
heart murmurs
|
|
the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle for one minute=
|
cardiac output=HRxSV
|
|
amount of blood pumped per beat
|
stroke volume (SV)
|
|
the difference between resting and maximal cardiac output
|
cardiac reserve
|
|
the difference between end diastolic volume and end systolic volume=
|
SV
|
|
degree of stretch of heart muscle just prior to contraction
|
peload
|
|
states that blood coming into the ventricles stretches the heart and cause optimal muscle contraction
|
frank-starling law of the heart
|
|
stretching of the heart increases __ and causes greater contraction force
|
cross-bridge numbers
|
|
any factor that increases __ or __ of venous return will increase EDV, SV, and strength of contractions
|
volume, speed
|
|
this stretches ventricles
|
venous return
|
|
pressure that must be overcome for blood to be ejected
|
afterload
|
|
what are ways the paraympathetic system can regulate heart rate?
|
1. ACh (open potassium channels)
2. vagal tone (dominant influence at rest) |
|
what are ways the sympatetic nervous system can regulate heart rate?
|
1. NE and E (cause threshold t be reached faster and enhance contractility)
|
|
what do epinephrine and thyroxine do to heart rate?
|
increase heart rate
|
|
having a resting heart rate over 100 BPM
|
tachycardia
|
|
having a resting heart rate less then 60 BPM
|
bradycardia
|
|
receives all venous blood in fetus; becomes right atrium and coronary sinus
|
sinus venosus
|
|
with truncus arteriosus, give rise to pulmonary trunk, aorta, and right ventricle in fetus
|
bulbus cordis
|
|
lung bypass between rumonary trunk and aorta in fetus
|
ductus arteriosus
|
|
between atria for pulmonary circut bypass
|
foramen ovale
|
|
remnant of ductus arteriosus
|
ligamentum arteriosum
|
|
the walls of blood vessels are made of __
|
three tunics around the lumen
|
|
endothelium (simple squamous); continuous with endocardium
|
tunica intima
|
|
circular smooth muscles that cause vasoconstriction and vasodilation
|
tunica media
|
|
-collagen fibers that protect and anchor vessels
|
tunica adventitia
|
|
blood supply for nurishment in large vessels only
|
vasa vasorum
|
|
-large, thick walled vessels near heart
-the aorta and its branches -conduncting artieries |
elastic arteries
|
|
contain large lumen; conduct blood to other arteries under low pressure
|
conducting arterites
|
|
-distributing arteries
-thickest layers; more active in vasocontriction |
muscular arteries
|
|
-the larger have all three tunics with little elastin in media
-smaller into capilaries have single smooth muscle layer around endothelium |
arterioles
|
|
-have tunica intima only
-average length is 1 mm and lumen 8-10 microns (RBC) -none in tendons, ligaments, cartilage, epithelia, cornea, and lens |
capillaries
|
|
type of capillary:
-skin and muscle (most common) -cells joined by tight junctions with gaps called intercellular clefts for passage of fluids and solutes |
continuous capillaries
|
|
type of capillary:
-more permealbe to fluids and small solutes -found in small intestine (absorbtion), endocrine organs (proteins are large), and kidneys (filtration) |
fenestrated capillaries
|
|
type of capillary:
-highly modified (leaky) -large moecules and blood cells can pss between blood and tissues -found in liver, bone marrow, lymphoid tissues, and some endocrine organs |
sinusoidal capillaries or sinusoids
|
|
there are __ true capillaries per capillary bed, depending on the needs of the tissue
|
10-100
|
|
what is the path of blood through the capillary bed from teh terminal ateriole to the postcapillary venule?
|
terminal ateriole-->metateriole-->capillary-->thoroughfare channel-->postcapillary venule
|
|
at metarteriole; regulates bloodflow into the capillary bed
|
precapillary sphincter
|
|
the union of capillaries
|
venules
|
|
-where venules unite
-made of three tunics, but thinner with larger lumen -media contains little elastin or muscle (no constriction or dilation) |
veins
|
|
contain up to 65% of blood volume at any given time and therefore are called blood reservoirs
|
veins
|
|
prevent backflow of blood in veins
|
venous valves
|
|
bad venous valves that have backflow and blood pooling
|
varicose veins
|
|
-where vascular channels unite
-three kinds: arterial, arteriovenous, and venous |
vascular anastomoses
|
|
volume of blood flowing through vessel, organ, or entire circulation in a period of time (mL/min)
|
blood flow
|
|
-force exerted on wall of vessel by blood
-measured in mm of mercury (mmHg) |
blood pressure
|
|
-opposition to flow of blood
-measure of friction that the blood encounters |
resistance
|
|
internal resistance related to the thickness of blood
|
blood viscosity
|
|
how does blood viscosity affect blood pressure?
|
the thicker the blood, the harder the work for the heart
|
|
the longer the blood vessel, the __ resistance
|
more
|
|
distensibility of elastic arteries and volume of blood into them
|
arterial blood pressure
|
|
measures the force exerted on the wall of a vessel by blood when the ventricles contract (120 mmHg)
|
systolic pressure
|
|
measures the force exerted on the wall of a vessel by blood when the aortic pressure drops to its lowest level as elastic arterioles recoil to maintain pressure (80 mmHg)
|
diastolic pressure
|
|
systolic pressure-diastolic pressure=__....(increases with arttherosclerosis)
|
pulse pressure
|
|
-diastolic pressure+pulse pressure/3
-pressure that propels the blood to tissues throughout cardiac cycle -diastole longer than systole, hence, 1/3 pulse pressure |
mean arterial pressure
|
|
what is the blood pressure in a capillary
|
-40 mm Hg, 20 at ends
|
|
__ are fragile and permeable
|
capillaries
|
|
venous blood pressure is a steady __ mmHg
|
20
|
|
three factors of venous return:
|
-respiratory pump
-muscular pumps -venous valves |
|
inhaling increases abdominal pressure and thoracic pressure drops increasing venous return
|
respiratory pump
|
|
skeletal muscles around veins contract and push blood up
|
muscular pumps
|
|
valves that prevent back flow of blood in veins
|
venous valves
|
|
blood pressure=__x__
|
cardiac output x peripheral resistance
|
|
the __ nerve maintains resting heart rate
|
vagus
|
|
__ primarily controls stroke volume
|
venous return
|
|
short term chemical control that increases vasoconstriction and cardiac output
|
adrenal medulla hormones
|
|
short term chemical control that controls water conservation and vasoconstriction
|
ADH
|
|
inhibits ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and depresses vasomotor center, vasodilation of skin, etc.
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alcohol
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temperature, pulse, respiratory rate
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vital signs
|
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radial is most common place to take this, also called pressure points that if compressed will stop bleeding
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pulse
|
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ways to monitor circulation:
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-vital signs
-pulse -blood pressure |
|
you use a sphygmomanometer to measure __ by listening to the sounds of korotkoff
|
blood pressure
|
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-when systolic pressure <100
-may be a sign of poor nutrition (low BP) -may be caused by addison's disease, hypotheyroidism, or circulatory shock |
Hypotension
|
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-BP 140/90 or higher
|
hypertension
|
|
-increased peripheral resistance
-30% of people 50 years of age have this -strains heart and damages arteries |
chronic hypertension
|
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-factors include: 90% unknown cause, diet, obesity, age, race, heredity, stress, smoking, diabetes
-treated with diuretics, diet restrictions, medications |
primary or essential hypertension
|
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provides:
-delivery of oxygen and nutrients -gas exchange -nutrient absorbtion -urine formation |
tissue perfusion
|
|
blood flow to each organ is __
|
precisely controlled
|
|
velocity of blood flow is __ where cross-sectional area is least
|
fastest
|
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combined cross-sectional area of vascular bed increases and volume held is greater therefore velocity __
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decreases
|
|
velocity of blood flow is __ in the capilaries
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slowest
|
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why is it important that blood velocity is slowest in the capillaries?
|
gas exchange
|
|
-automatic adjustment of blood flow to each tissue proportional to its requirements
|
autoregulation of blood flow
|
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modifies diameter of local arterioles feeding the capillaries
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intrinsic controls of autoregulation
|
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controls nutrients (oxygen), and wastes in blood
|
metabolic controls
|
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controls the amount of stretch of vascular smooth muscle causes constriction or dilation
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myogenic controls
|
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wastes and nutrients move from an area of __ to __ in and out of capillaries
|
high concentration, low concentration
|
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the force being exerted by a fluid against walls of vessels
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
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what is the hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries?
|
blood pressure
|
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the force pushing fluids into capillaries because of a higher concentration gradient of blood proteins inside the capillary
|
interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure
|
|
what removes the fluid left over after interstitial fluid pressure in capillaries?
|
lymphatics
|
|
-created by presence of nondiffusible molecules in fluid such as plasma proteins in capillaries
-molecules draw water towards them or encourage osmosis |
capillary colloid osmotic pressure
|
|
__ is greater then that of interstitial fluid
|
capillary colloid osmotic pressure
|
|
net sum of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure
|
net filtration pressure
|
|
lymphatics are a __ system
|
ONE WAY
|
|
lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissue and organs throughout body
|
lymphatic system
|
|
fluid that enters lymphatic vessels
|
lymph
|
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between tissue cells and capillaries in loose connective tissue
|
lymph capillaries
|
|
in lymph capillaries, endothelial cells overlap forming __
|
minivalves
|
|
fine filament bundles anchor endothelial cells to other strutures so an increase in intersitial fluid volume __ flaps
|
opens
|
|
in microvilli of small intestine; carry digested fats, etc. forming a white fluid
|
lacteals
|
|
formed by union of large collecting vessels
|
lymphatic trunks
|
|
drains fluids from the right arm, head, and thorax
|
right lymphatic duct
|
|
drains fluid from the left side of head, neck , thorax, and entire body below diaphragm
|
thoracic duct
|
|
both the right lymphatic and thoracic duct empty into venous circulation at junction of __
|
internal jugular and subclavian veins
|
|
-skeletal muscle pump
-pressure changes in thorax -pulsation of arteries in area -smooth muscle contractions in walls of lymphatic trunks and thoracic duct -valves |
methods of lymph transport
|
|
lymph transport is __ then veins; _L in 24 hours
|
slower, 3
|
|
you should __ infected areas because physical activity and passive movement increase rate of lymph flow which can spread
|
immobilize
|
|
blockage by tumors, removal of lymphatics in surgery may cause
|
lymphedema
|
|
control immune response (helpers and suppressors) and directly attack
|
T cells
|
|
produce plasma cells that secrete antibodies to immobilize antigens (bacteria toxins, viruses, RBC's, cancer cells) to be destroyed by macrophages, etc.
|
B cells
|
|
phagocytes and activate T cells
|
macrophages
|
|
in lymphoid tissue; phagocytes
|
dendrtic cells
|
|
fibroblast-like; produce reticular fiber stroma that suports other cells
|
reticular cells
|
|
-loose connective tissue found in all lymphoid organs but thymus
-macrophages on fibers and lymphocytes in spaces |
reticular connective tissue
|
|
-may have germinal centers that have mainly B cells and these centers enlarge when B cells are active
-may form lymph nodes, peyer's patches ect. |
lymphatic follicles (nodules)
|
|
type of lymphoid organs
|
-lymph nodes
-spleen -thymus |
|
filter with macrophages to remove and destroy microorganisms and debris and activate immune system via lymphoctes
|
lymph nodes
|
|
densely packed follicles with many germinal centers with dividing B cells
|
cortex
|
|
medullary cords (extensions of cortex) contain lymphoctes and plasma cells
|
medulla
|
|
large lymph capillaries throughout lymph node; many macrophages
|
lymph sinuses
|
|
indented region where lymph exits via efferent lymphatic vessels
|
hilus
|
|
fewer of these than afferent, so lymph stagnates some in nodes
|
efferent lymphatic vessels
|
|
why is it good that lymph stagnates some in the lymph nodes?
|
b/c macrophages can look thorough lymph for abnormal cells
|
|
the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and peyers patches are all composed of what kind of tissue?
|
reticular connective tissue
|
|
true or false? the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and peyers patches all filter lymph.
|
FALSE
|
|
largest lymphoid organ
|
spleen
|
|
the spleen is highly __
|
vascularized
|
|
the spleen is a site for lymphocites __ and immune surveillane and response
|
proliferation
|
|
the spleen removes defective cells, platelets, debrins, foreign matter, bacteria, viruses, toxins ext. this is called __
|
blood filtering
|
|
the spleen stores __ and releases some for reuse by line (iron)
|
RBC breakdown components
|
|
the spleen is the site for __ in the fetus
|
RBC production
|
|
reticular tissue with RBCs and macrophages; RBC disposal, pathogens
|
Red pulp
|
|
when teh liver and bone marrow macrophages take over spleen functions
|
splenectomy
|
|
located the lower neck into mediastinum
-secretes thymosin and thymopoietin for T cells to become immuocompetent |
thymus
|
|
the thymus's attrification with old age
|
involution
|
|
deals with T cell maturation only-does not directly fight antigens; actually has a barrier to prevent premature activation of T cells
|
thymus
|
|
__ secrete thymus hormones
|
thymocytes
|
|
-located around entrance to phaynx
-remove pathogiens from air and food with crypts trapping bacteria and matter, helps produce variety of immune cells with "memory" but it is risky to invite the pathogens in |
tonsils
|
|
largest tonsil, most often infected
|
palatine
|
|
clusters of nodules similar to tonsils in ileum of small inestine
|
peyers patches
|
|
-adjuct lymphatic tissue off of cecum
-destroys bacteria -generates memory lyphocytes for long term immunity |
appendix
|
|
peyers patches, apendix, and lymphatic organs in bronchi
|
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)
|