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40 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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State the principles of SCLOA |
1. Humans are social animals and have a basic need to belong 2. Culture influences behaviour 3. Humans are social animals and have a social self 4. People's views of the world are resistant to change |
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State the research methods common at SCLOA |
Most research at this level is "naturalistic", done in environments where the behaviour is likely to take place, although early studies were often performed in labs. |
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Leon Festinger et al. "When Prophecy Fails" 1956 |
Covert observation. Researchers became members of a cult that had remained isolated from non-believers. When their end-of-the-world prophecy failed to come true, they rationalised the events to mean that God had answered their faithful following of rituals and prayer. Can be used to outline research methods at SCLOA. |
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Define attribution theory |
Attribution is how people interpret and explain causal relationships in the social world. People are more likely to explain their own behaviour with situational factors, and are more likely to explain the behaviour of others with dispositional factors. |
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What are dispositional and situational factors? |
Dispositional factors are due to a person's personality. Situational factors are due to external factors. |
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Define fundamental attribution error |
When people underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in a person's behaviour. May be due to seeing ourselves as flexible and adaptable, but not having enough information about others to make the same judgement. |
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Ross et al. Fundamental attribution error 1977 |
Participants were assigned random roles (host, contestant, or audience). The hosts designed their own questions. Audience members consistently ranked the hosts as more intelligent, even though they knew they had written their own questions. Student participants were used, and deeming authority figures as more intelligent could be a learned response from their experiences with professors. Student samples are also not representative of the greater population. |
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Define self-serving bias |
When people take credit for their successes, but attribute their failures to situational factors, thereby dissociating themselves from failures. |
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Lau and Russel 1980 |
American football players and coaches tend to credit their wins to hard work, but credit their failures to external factors like injuries, bad weather, and fouls by the other team. Used for self-serving bias. |
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State a reason for employing self-serving bias |
Greenberg et al. (1982) says we do this to protect our self-esteem. Miller and Ross (1975) says we usually expect to succeed, so when we don't we blame it on bad luck because it was an unexpected outcome. This explanation also works for when we expect to fail, but succeed instead, and blame it on luck. |
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Kashima and Triandis 1986 |
Asked participants to remember details of slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries, then asked them to explain their performance. Americans tended to attribute success to ability, while Japanese were more likely to attribute failures to lack of ability. Used for cultural differences in SSB, and modesty bias. |
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How can modesty bias be explained? |
Kashima and Triandissay it is because of the collective nature of Asian cultures: people derive their self-esteem from group identity, not from personal accomplishment. |
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Define social identity theory |
Individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on personal identity or social identities. People can boost self-esteem by affiliation with successful groups. |
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Cialdini et al. 1976 |
College football supporters were more likely to were team insignia after a successful match. Used for social identity theory. |
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Tajfel et al. 1971 |
Boys were randomly assigned to groups (supposedly based on their art preference). The boys rated their own group-members as more likable (although the other group was never rated as disliked). The boys were also willing to give lower rewards to their own group if it meant that the other group would get less than them. Used for social identity theory. |
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Describe some fallacies in social identity theory |
Personal identity is sometimes more important to us than group identity. It fails to address the environment that interacts with the "self" (many environmental factors may play a role). |
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Describe the Moscovici (1973) theory of social representations |
Social representations are the shared beliefs and explanations held by the society in which we live or the group to which we belong. Social representations are the foundation of social cognition, and they allow communication to take place between members of a community, by providing a code for social exchange. Cultural schemas. |
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Adler (1990) |
If you ask a Russian mother what it means for her child to share something, she will describe her children playing with a toy at the same time, while an American mother will describe her children taking turns to play with the same toy. (used for social representations) |
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Howarth "Brixton girls" 2002 |
Wanted to see how social representations of Brixton affected the identity of adolescent girls living there. Used groups of friends to encourage empathy and respect in discussions. The negative view of Brixton was not shared by the girls, who felt that people from Brixton were diverse, creative, and vibrant. This view affected the way the girls made friends and interacted with the police, so on. (Used for social representation) |
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Define stereotype |
A social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes. A generalization made about a group, and then attributed to members. |
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Define stereotype threat |
When there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, the fear of confirming the stereotype may lead to inadvertently confirming the stereotype. |
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Steele and Aronson 1995 |
Gave a 30 minute verbal test made of difficult questions. When groups were told it was to test "verbal abilities", Euopean Americans scored significalty better. When they were told it was to test "problem solving abilities", African Americans scored higher, and their perfomance matched the Europeans. Similar results for tests with women and social classes. Explains why some people believe in their own stereotypes. (Used for stereotype threat) |
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What are some theories for the stereotype threat? |
Steele (1997) - spotlight anxiety, causes emotional distress and may undermine performance due to pressure. |
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Spencer et al. 1997 |
Researchers gave difficult tests to students who were good at mathematics. Women significantly underperformed compared to equally qualified men. However, when given literature tests, the two groups did equally well. (Used for the stereotype threat) |
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Give some theories for the formation of stereotypes |
1. Campbell (1967) - personal experience with individuals and groups, and gatekeepers (media, parents, etc.). A single experience can be generalised to a group. 2. Hamilton and Gifford (1976) - illusory correlation (seeing a non-existant relationship). Overestimating a link between two variables. |
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Define confirmation bias |
People tend to overlook information that contradicts their beliefs, and pay more attention to behaviours that confirm their beliefs. Makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change. |
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Snyder and Swann 1978 |
Asked female college student to make questions for extroverts and introverts (randomly assigned). Introverts were asked "what do you dislike about parties?", or "Are there times you wish you were more outgoing?", and extroverts were asked "What do you do to liven up a party?". (Used for stereotype threat) |
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Define social learning theory |
Humans learn through observational behaviour. Relies on Attention, Retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. Motivation depends on identification, rewards/punishment, liking the model, and consistency of behaviour. |
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Bandura 1961 |
36 girls, 36 boys, 3-6yrs old. One group saw an aggressive adult model, one saw a non-aggressive model, one saw no model. Within each group, some saw a same-sex model, others saw a different model. They were put into another room with toys, then taken out and put into a room with a bobo doll. Children were more aggressive after an aggressive model, were more likely to imitate same-sex models. Girls imitated verbal aggression, boys imitated physical aggression. (used for social learning theory) |
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St Helena Island 1995 |
Cameras set up in schools and playgrounds, children were observed before and after the introduction of television. There was the same amount of violence in the introduced programs as in British TV. No increase in antisocial behaviour among the children. (used for social learning theory) |
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Evaluate social learning theory |
1. Since there is sometimes a gap between watching a model and exhibiting the same behaviour, it is difficult to establish for sure that the behaviour is a result of observation. 2. Some people never learn a behaviour, despite all the criteria for social learning theory being met. |
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What are the factors that influence compliance? |
Authority - people comply more with authority figures. Commitment - Once people have agreed to one thing, they are more likely to comply with similar requests Liking - liking the person Reciprocity - returning a favour Scarcity - More valuable Social proof - bandwagon effect |
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Lynn and McCall 1998 |
Restaurant customers left larger tips if they were given a mint or sweet with their bill. Used for reciprocity |
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Cialdini "Low-Balling" 1974 |
Only 24% of students agreed when they were asked to participate in a study at 7 a.m. 56% of students agreed when they were only told about the time after they had said yes, and on the actual day, 95% of them showed up. (Used for Compliance techniques) |
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Aronson and Mills "Hazing" 1959 |
Women who went through a severely embarrassing initiation before joining a sex discussion group found the group extremely valuable. Women who did not have any initiation found the group "worthless and uninteresting". The hosts of the group were trained to be boring. (Used for Compliance techniques) |
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Outline conformity |
A tendency to adjust ones thoughts, feelings, or behaviour in ways to agree with those of a larger group, or with social norms. |
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Asch 1951 |
Participants in a room full of confederates were asked to say which line had the same length as the test line. The confederates all gave the same wrong answer. 75% of participants conformed at least once. 32% agreed more than half the time. When interviewed, they said they did not want to go against the group. Larger groups increase conformity up to 3 confederates, then it stays stable. If one of the confederates gave the correct answer, participants were less likely to conform. Higher confidence lowered conformity (med students). Higher self-esteem lowered conformity. |
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Moscovici and Lage 1976 |
4 participants, only 2 confederates, the confederates described a blue-green colour as green. The minority was able to influece 32% of the participants at least once. These participants also continued giving the wrong answer when the two confederates left. |
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How can minority opinions influence the majority? |
Hogg and Vaughan (1995) 1. Produce uncertainty and doubt 2. Show that alternatives exist 3. Consistency shows a commitment to the alterative view. |
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Why do people conform? |
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) Informational social influence: People evaluate their own opinions through social comparison, and become anxious when they feel different, and will either conform, or rationalise their own behaviour. Normative social influence: Conform to avoid rejection and gain social approval. |
