Social Cognition Test #4

Front 1

What did the results of the Princeton Trilogy demonstrate regarding how stereotype content has changed over time? Why were the studies call thed Princeton Trilogy?

Back 1

Stereotypes about African Americans generally decreased over time.

Called the Princeton Trilogy because the three studies were conducted at Princeton University

Front 2

What did the results of the Madon et al. (2000) study indicate about the emergence of modern stereotypes?

Back 2

Stereotype content has changed about African Amercans (loud, rude, aggresive, loyal to family etc.) from superstitious, lazy, ignorant, etc.

Front 3

What did Devine (1989) argue about the activation of stereotypes? Did Devine believe that
everyone is aware of the African-American stereotype? Did Devine believe that everyone
activates the stereotype? Did Devine believe that every can control the application of the
stereotype?

Back 3

Argued that everyone, regardless of prejudice level, activates stereotypes automatically

Believed that everyone is aware of the African American stereotype and that everyone activates it

Believed that low prejudice people, but not high prejudice people control the application of the stereotype

Front 4

In Devine’s (1989) study, how did subjects’ ratings of Donald change in response to being
primed with African-American stereotype words?

Back 4

Priming with AA stereotypes yielded increased ratings of hostility

Front 5

Did the studies by Lepore and Brown (1997) and Wittenbrink et al. (1997) support or refute the
idea that stereotypes are automatically activated by everyone?

Back 5

Lepore and Brown discovered that only high prejudiced individuals rated target as more aggressive and unreliable when primed with stereotypical black traits

Wittenbrink discovered that people who scored higher on MRS were more prejudiced.

Front 6

What were the results of the Fein and Spencer (1997) study on the application of stereotypes?

Back 6

We regain self-worth by derogating others or comparing ourselves to less competent others

We may be especially likely to apply negative stereotypes when our self-worth has been threatened

Front 7

Under which conditions were subjects more likely to apply negative stereotypes? (Fein and Spencer)

Back 7

We may be especially likely to apply negative stereotypes when our self-worth has been threatened

Front 8

What is the contact hypothesis and under what conditions is contact more likely to reduce
prejudice?

Back 8

Social contact between members of majority and minority groups will reduce prejudice

Conditions:
Equal status among individuals
No intergroup competition
Endorsement of integration by authorities
Between group friendships are particularly important

Front 9

What is the extended contact effect and what are the general findings regarding the extended
contact effect? What is the relationship between the number of ingroup-outgroup friendships that
are known and prejudice?

Back 9

Knowledge that an ingroup member has a close relationship with an outgroup member can lead to more positive ingroup attitudes

General findings:

Knowledge of an ungroup-outgroup friendship is associated with less prejudice
Greater number of ingroup-outgroup friendships known, the lower the prejudice
The greater the perceived overlap of selves in the ungroup-outgroup friendship, the lower the prejudice

Front 10

What do the terms refencing and subtyping mean? How do the two differ?

Back 10

Refencing:
Strong tendency to view discnfirming behavior as being performed by exceptions to the group. (White basketball player)

Subtyping:
considering atypical group members as belonging to a special subgroup of the larger group
Subtyping yields greater adherence to stereotyping

Front 11

What two factors influence the tendency to subtype?

Back 11

1. Whether disconfirming information is concentrated among a few group members or dispersed
--Concentrated= greater tendency to subtype
--Dispersed= lesser tendency to subtype

2. Whether counterstereotypic individuals share another common attribute
--common attribute= greater tendency to subtype
--provides a "good reason" for subtyping

Front 12

Why does sharing a common attribute tend to lead to greater subtyping?

Back 12

because it provides a "good reason" for subtyping

Front 13

Are extremely counterstereotypic individuals more or less likely than moderately
counterstereotypic individuals to change the stereotype of a group?

Back 13

Ironically, extreme counterstereotypic individuals may be less likely than moderately counterstereotypic individuals to change the stereotype of the group because they are dismissed as exceptions

Front 14

What were the design and results of the study by Yzerbyt, Coull, & Rocher (1999)?

Back 14

Had Ss listen to an interview of a computer engineer that contained 5 pieces of info that disconfirmed the stereotype of the introverted computer engineer.

Some were distracted some not. Half asked to judge the category and half asked to judge the person

Results:
disconfirming info affected perceptions of group but only when distracted

Front 15

Are people more likely to look for stereotype-confirming or stereotype-disconfirming
information?

Back 15

People are more likely to search for stereotype-confirming information

Front 16

In the study on confirmatory biases by Johnston and Macrae (1994), in which condition (choice
vs. forced) did subjects end up having the least stereotypical perception of physics students?

Back 16

Forced.

In the choice condition stereotypes were most similar to the controls

Front 17

What are two barriers to academic identification?

Back 17

1. Socio-structural variables (e.g., lack of resources, discrimination, limits on educational opportunities)

2. Stereotype threat
--even if one survives structural obstacles, one may still be affected by the negative stereotypes that exist about one's group in a particular domain.
--e.g., blacks are unintelligent; women are not capable in math and science

Front 18

Do people need to believe that a stereotype is true about their group in order for them to
experience stereotype threat?

Back 18

No, they do not need to believe that a stereotype is true about their group in order for them to experience stereotype threat

Front 19

In Steele’s research program, when did Black subjects underperform in relation to White
subjects?

Back 19

They underperformed when they were told it was diagnostic of intelligence

Front 20

In the study by Shih et al (1999), in which condition did the Asian-American participants
perform the best? Under which condition did they perform the worst?

Back 20

Performed the best with asian-identity salient. Performed the worst with gender-idnentity salient

Front 21

What were the design and results of the Stone et al. (1999) study?

Back 21

40 white and 40 black students played mini golf in lab. under these conditions: Natural Ability, Sports Intellignec, Race Prime, Control.

Dependent Variables:
Strokes, Anxiety, Discounting

Results:
Black/natural ability= least amount of strokes/ least anxiety...Whites had most discounting
White/sports intelligence= less strokes than blacks in the condition and less anxiety...Blacks had more discounting
White/ race prime= less strokes and less anxiety

Front 22

What is stereotype lift?

Back 22

Stereotypes lead to better performance (opposite of threat)

Front 23

What was the intervention that Cohen et al. (2006) used in their field experiment on stereotype
threat?

Back 23

self-afirmation alleviates burden of stereotypes by getting rid of self-doubt

Front 24

What were the “early tools” and “contemporary tools” used for assessing physical responses to
cognitive activity?

Back 24

Early tools:
--Galvanic Skin Response
--Examining brain-damaged patients

Contemporary tools:
--Brain imaging techniques (fMRI)
--Recording brain signals (electroencephalography or EEG)

Front 25

What were the effects of Phineas Gage’s brain damage?

Back 25

He became fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity

Manifested little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint of advice when it conflicts with his desires

His mind was radically changed so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was "no longer Gage."

Front 26

Where is the ventromedial prefrontal cortex located?

Back 26

In the frontal lobe

Front 27

What processes does the ventromedial prefrontal cortex seem to be implicated in?

Back 27

Implicated in the processing of risk and fear, and in decision making

Front 28

What are some of the decision-making consequences of lesions to the ventromedial prefrontal
cortex?

Back 28

severe impairments in personal and social decision-making; tend to opt for choices that yield high immediate gain despite higher future losses

Front 29

What did the Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio (2000) reveal about the most likely explanation for
why VM lesion patients opt for immediate gains despite higher future loses?

Back 29

Insensitivity to future consequences was the most likely explanation (as opposed to insensitivity to punishment and hypersensitivity to reward)

personality similar to a sociopath

Front 30

What is fMRI? What does it specifically measure?

Back 30

functional magnetic resonance imaging

measures the hemodynamic response (change in blood flow) related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals

Front 31

What does the term BOLD stand for?

Back 31

Blood
Oxygen
Level
Dependence

Greater activation=greater blood flow
however, considering blood is always flowing, must utilize the subtraction technique

Front 32

What are two of the goals of fMRI?

Back 32

1. Brain mapping

2. Providing neurological evidence that can support or challenge existing psychological theories. Requires a very good understanding of brain functions

Front 33

What is brain mapping?

Back 33

understanding which parts of the brain perform different types of functions

Front 34

What were the design and results of the Eisenberger et al. (2003) study on social pain? How was
activity in the ACC and the RVPFC affected by social exclusion?

Back 34

Ss were placed in a scanner and played Cyberball with two other imaginary players

participants were excluded or included by the virtual players

Results:
Activity in the ACC was associated with increased distress after social exclusion
Activity in the RVPFC, previously linked with the regulation of pain distress, was associated with diminished distress after social exclusion

Front 35

What is EEG?

Back 35

Electroencephalography

recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain

Front 36

What is the odd-ball paradigm?

Back 36

Happens 300 ms after an event

tells you someone doesn't like something

Front 37

What were the design and results of the Amodio et al. (2004) study on the role of cognitive
control in the expression of prejudice?

Back 37

Weapons identification task + EEG recording

Results:
People made a black-tool error more often than a white tool error

People made a black-gun error about as often as a white-gun error, but a black-gun correct more often than a white-gun correct response

Front 38

What is the ERN?

Back 38

Error-Related Negativity
--The ERN is a negative voltage deflection that typically peaks within 50 ms following a response.

Front 39

What did Amodio et al. (2004) conclude from their study?

Back 39

Our brains register race-based errors very quickly

Controlled processes may operate non-consciously and very quickly after errors have been detected

Front 40

What is embodied cognition?

Back 40

Cognition includes not only abstract and modal mental representation but also amodal perceptual content from various sensors

Our brains record both cognitive representations of events and our bodily sensations during those events

Why?
--the environment is part of the cognitive system
--Cognition is for action

Front 41

What does the term “reciprocal action” mean in the context of embodied cognition?

Back 41

a cognitive representation can lead to a bodily sensation and a bodily sensation can lead to a cognitive representation

Front 42

What were the design and results of the study by Miles, Nind, and Macrae (2010)

Back 42

Participants wore motion sensor and imagined future or past events

thinking in the past= swayed backward
thinking in the future= swayed forward

Front 43

What were the design and results of the study by Zhong and Leonardelli (2008)

Back 43

Study 1:
When participants recalled being socialy excluded they estimated the temperature of the room being colder

Study 2:
When participants were excluded in a virtual ball-tossing game they rated the desireability of warm foods as higher...control foods were the same

Front 44

What are the strongly held assumptions that have been held about cognition?

Back 44

Basic cognitive processes are universal

Processes work the same way regardless of the content that they operate on

General learning and inferential processes are necessary and sufficient

The content of the human mind is indefinitely variable

Front 45

What do Nisbett and Norenzayan (2002) propose as the current view of cognition?

Back 45

Some cognitive processes are highly susceptible to change, even for adults

Cultures differ markedly in the type of inferential procedures they typically use

Traditional distinction between content and processes seems somewhat arbitrary

Cultural practices and cognitive processes constitute one another

Front 46

What is a cultural schema?

Back 46

Patterns of basic schemas that make up the meaning systems of a cultural group (e.g., raising a family)

Front 47

What are cultural models?

Back 47

Shared cultural schemas

Govern how people interpret their experiences and help guide their behaviors

Front 48

What is a culture of honor?

Back 48

more inclined to endorse violence for protection and in response to insults to convince others that they are not easy to be pushed around

Front 49

What are analytic and holistic reasoning?

Back 49

Holistic reasoning:
--Attention to field in which the object is located
--Preference for predicting and explaining behavior using object-field relations
--Reliance on experiential knowledge rather than formal rules of logic
--Dialectical: embraces change, contradiction, multiple perspectives, the "MIddle Way"

Analytic
--Attention to object and its attributes
--Detachment of the object from its field
--Preference for predicting and explaining behavior using rules about categories
--Reliance on use of formal logic and the law of noncontradiciton

Front 50

What are the social and economic structures that characterized ancient Chinese and ancient
Greek societies?

Back 50

Ancient Chinese:
--Agrarian society
--Strong sense of social obligation and collective agency
--Ingroup harmony

Ancient Greek
--Nomadic
--Sense of individualism and freedom
--Personal agency

Front 51

What are independent and interdependent self-construals and how do they differ?

Back 51

The independent self:
--Self is viewed as an independent, autonomous, separate being defined by a unique repertoire of attributes, abilities, thoughts and feelings

The interdependent self
--the self is viewed as interdependent with others and is experienced as part of a social web, One's behavior, thoughts, and feelings are seen as dependent on those of others in the relationship

Front 52

What type of reasoning characterizes East Asian cultures? What type of reasoning characterizes
Western cultures?

Back 52

East Asians tend to group objects on the basis of the Relationship among objects
Also use more experimental knowledge
Westerns tend to group on the basis of Categories and Rules, formal logic

Front 53

What type of self-construal characterizes East Asian cultures? What type of self-construal
characterizes Western cultures?

Back 53

East Asian cultures are relatively more interdependent

Western cultures more independent

Front 54

What were the results of the Fernald and Morikawa (1993) study that examined socialization
practices among mothers.

Back 54

American mothers encouraged attention toward objects

japanese mothers focused more on social exchange and empathy routines

Front 55

What were the results of the Tardiff (1996) study that examined socialization practices among
mothers.

Back 55

Western infants learn nouns at a rapid rate but learn verbs more slowly

opposite is true for Chinese infants

American mothers use more nouns with their infants than Chinese mothers

Front 56

In the Iwao and Gentner (1997) study, which subjects (Americans or Japanese) made a greater
proportion of shape responses and how did that difference change as according to the age of the
subjects?

Back 56

Americans made more shape responses and it became more pronounced as age progressed

Front 57

What were the results of the Masuda and Nisbett (2001) study on attention to object vs. field?

Back 57

Americans focused more on individual objects

Japanese attended more to background and relationships

However, Japanese had more difficulty recognizing a previously seen object if background changed

Front 58

Which subjects (Japanese or American) were more likely to take the facial expressions of
background individuals into account when judging the facial expression of a central figure?

Back 58

Japanese more likely

Front 59

What is the typicality effect? Which group of subjects in the Norenzayan et al (2000) study
exhibited the largest typicality effect?

Back 59

The more typical an object is of a category, the more likely they are to attribute the characteristic

Koreans showed a large typicality effect

Front 60

Why are East Asians less likely than Westerners to exhibit the correspondence bias?

Back 60

because East Asian cultures posses greater "situationism"

The self is considered to be malleable in relation to the situation. So the situation is a stronger determinant of behavior in Asian cultures than in American cultures

Front 61

What were the design and results of the Choi and Nisbett (2000) Good Samaritan Study? In
which condition did participants exhibit the hindsight bias the most and exhibit the least amount
of surprise?

Back 61

John, a seminary student was descibed as a generous and helpful person.
He encountered a person that needed help, but if he did help he would be late for his sermon. Does he help?
Koreans vs. Americans

Koreans exhibit the hindsight bias more, they were generally less surprised by the no-help outcome

Front 62

Which culture (Western or Eastern) tends to be more comfortable with contradiction and
multiple perspectives?

Back 62

Eastern

Front 63

In the Iyengar and Lepper (1999) study, in which choice condition did the Asian-American
students exhibit the best performance and the most intrinsic motivation?

Back 63

they exhibited the best performance and intrinsic motivation in the mom choice

Front 64

In the Chiao et al (2009) study, in which condition (font, contextual, or general) did Japanese
participants exhibit the most MPFC activation? In which condition, (font, contextual, or general)
did Caucasian-American participants exhibit the greatest MPFC activation?

Back 64

Japanese exhibit the most MPFC activation in the contextual condition

Caucasian-Americans exhibit the most MPFC activation in the general condition