Psychology Theories And Theorists

Front 1

Pavlov

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Learning. Classical Conditioning: trained dogs to salivate when hearing a bell. When an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) which produces an unconditioned response (salivation) is presented together with a conditioned stimulus (a bell), such that the salivation is eventually produced on the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, thus becoming a conditioned response.

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Skinner

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Learning. Operant conditioning in skinner box. Trained rats to press bar to recieve pellet when the light in the box turned on. Partially reinforced behavior reinforced is more resistant to extinction than continuously reinforced behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Increment, Variable Increment

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Watson

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Learning. Classical Conditioning-Little Albert experiment. UCS (Loud sound) produced UCR (crying). Neutral Stimulus (rat) was paired with UCS, and eventually the NS became the CS and the UCR became the CR.

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Bandura

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Learning. Observational Learning-Bobo Doll Experiment. Children watched film showing adult playing aggressively with a doll. In one version the adult was reinforced with candy and snacks, another, with spanking and scolding, and the other, (the control group) had no reinforcement. Children who watched the video where adults were punished were less likely to imitate behaviors.
Pt 2: Children asked to show experimenter what the adult in the film did and were rewarded with snacks and stickers for every imitated behavior. All children imitated behavior, regardless of what version the had seen.
Expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned

Front 5

Thorndike

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Learning. Operant Conditioning-Puzzle Boxes. Put hungry cats in puzzle boxes that the cat could escape from and receive food. With random attempts the cat would find the right lever to open the box. After several trials in the same box the cat could open the door quickly. Learning process by trial and error.

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Garcia

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Learning/Biological. Classical Conditioning-Taste Aversion. Rats, Saccharine Water (Neutral stimulus), drug (UCS), Gastrointestinal Distress (UCS). Rats were given NS and then paired NS with UCS. After one trial the rats refused to drink the water again (NS had become CS, UCR, CR)

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Rescorla

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Learning. Classical Conditioning-Reliable Signal. 1 group of rats heard tone (CS) paired 20 X with brief electric shock (UCS). 1 group rats experienced same number of tone-shock pairings but an additional 20 shocks with no tone. Rats in first group had much stronger fear response to tone. CS must be a reliable signal that predicts UCS.

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Seligman

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Learning/Dysfunctional. Learned Helplessness (Depression). Dogs were placed in harness and administered several shocks (UCS) paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS). Then these dogs were placed in a shuttle-box where they could avoid shock by jumping over a barrier.Most of the dogs failed to learn to avoid shock. Theory of learned helplessness in patients experiencing depression.

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Tolman

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Learning/Cognitive. Latent Learning-Cognitive Map. Rats placed in a maze. After many trials in the same maze a food reward was placed at the end and rats would sometimes knock over walls instead of going around the whole route to get to the food. Rats had build a cognitive map of the maze. No reward was necessary for learning to take place, but rats needed motivation to demonstrate learned behavior

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Loftus

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Cognitive
False Memories Experiment. Examiners wrote down 4 childhood events written by parents or relative about participant. 3 had actually happened, the fourth was a pseudoevent, about the participant getting lost in the mall. After reading each event participants wrote down as many memories as they could about each event. Two weeks later participants were interviewed and asked to recall details. Two weeks later interviewed again. By the final interview 6 of the 24 participants had created full or partial memories of being lost in the mall.
Misinformation Effect. Subjects watched film of car accident and wrote a description fo what the saw and answered questions. One critical question "About how fast were the cars going when the contacted each other?" given in different forms, with word contacted replaced with hit, bumped, collided, or smashed. Depending on the word the subjects gave different estimates of speed.

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Ebinghaus

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Cognitive. Forgetting curve. Created nonsense syllables. Counted # times had to repeat list of 13 before he could recall it perfectly. Once he learned it he tested his recall in varying amounts of time (20 min-30 days). Most information was lost relatively soon after originally learned. How quickly information is lost depends on # times rehearsed, level of encoding, etc.

Front 12

Miller

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Cognitive. The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Chunking allows more information to be remembered (lim 7 chunks)

Front 13

Sperling

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Cognitive/Biological. Duration of sensory memory. flashed 12 letters for 1/20 sec arranged 4X3. Avg participant could remember 4 or 5 of 12 letters.
Pt 2: arranged 3X4, after screen went blank sounded high, medium, or low pitch. If they heard high-pitched tone they were instructed to report first line of letters,medium-second line, low-third. If tone sounded within 1/3 sec of screen going blank subjects could remember 3 letters per row. Any longer accuracy decreased. Visual sensory memory (1/4 - 1/2 sec), auditory sensory memory (3-4 sec)

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Lashley

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Cognitive/Biological. Search for memory trace (engram). Believed memory is stored in specific part of brain. Had rats run through maze, cut out parts of cerebral cortex, once rats recovered they could still run through maze. Disproved theory, complex memory is not localized but distributed throughout the brain. Led to further biological research

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Thompson

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Cognitive/Biological. Search for memory trace (engram). Classically conditioned rabbits to blink by pairing a puff of air in their eyes with a tone. Discovered there was a change in the small area of the rabbit's cerebellum, a lower brain structure involved in physical movements. When removed, rabbits no longer blinked when hearing tone but the puff of air still caused blinking (reflex). Simple (reflexive) memory is localized in brian.

Front 16

Sperry

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Biological. Corpus Callosum split-brain patients. Tested split-brain patients by directing them to focus on a point in the middle of a screen, while briefly flashing a word or picture to the left or right of the midpoint. Projected image of concealed object behind the screen to the left of the midpoint. If asked to verbally identify the image the patient couldn't because his left hemisphere didn't know the information that had been sent to his right hemisphere. If he was asked to use his left hand to reach for the object he would correctly pick up the right object because his left hand was controlled by his right hemisphere.

Front 17

Broca

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Biological. Language and the Left Hemisphere. Treated patients who had great difficulty speaking but could comprehend written or spoken language. Autopsies showed brain damage was in an area on the lower frontal lobe. This area on the left hemisphere is known as Broca's area.

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Wernicke

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Biological. Speech and Language in Left Hemisphere. Patients had great difficulty understanding spoken or written language but could speak easily and quickly, though they spoke nonsensical words. Autopsies showed damage to area on the left temporal lobe known as Wernicke's area.

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MRI

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Biological. A noninvasive imaging technique that produces highly detailed images of the brain using electromagnetic signals generated by the brain in response to magnetic fields.

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fMRI

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Biological. A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain's blood flow and oxygen levels.

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PET

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Biological. An invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain's use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug.

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Human Genome Project

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Biological. The scientific description of the complete set of DNA in the human organism, including gene locations

Front 23

Eriksson & Gage

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Biological. Neruogenesis. 5 adult cancer patients, given a drug to determine whether tumor cells were multiplying. Drug colors the cells, which can be detected under florescent lights. IF new neurons were being generated the drug would present in their genetic material. After patients died autopsy performed and hippocampus removed. In each patient hundreds of new neurons had been generated since the drug had been administered. Hippocampus generates new neurons throughout lifespan.

Front 24

Loewi

Back 24

Biological. Existence of neurotransmitters. 2 frog hearts in seperate chambers with a tube and liquid in between. The first heart was stimulated and moments later the second heart would also convulse. Proved that some chemical (neurotransmitters) had been emitted that transferred through the liquid to the other heard after stimulation.

Front 25

Ramon y Cajal

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Biological. Neuron Doctrine (Neurons have cell bodies, axons, dendrites and neural transmission only goes in one direction, from dendrites to axon). Used a staining technique on nervous tissue isolate a neuron cell and prove it is its own entity and not a mesh of cells like previously thought. Staining also detailed dendrites and axons.

Front 26

Rosenhan

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Dysfunctional. Validity of psychotic diagnosis. Sent 12 healthy confederates into mental hospitals and instructed them to report having had auditory hallucinations to gain admittance. All were admitted and diagnosed with psychiatric disorders. Once inside, confederates acted normally and told staff that they felt fine and had not experienced more hallucinations. Hospital staff failed to detect a single pseudopatient, and instead believed that all of the pseudopatients exhibited symptoms of ongoing mental illness. Several were confined for months. All were forced to admit to having a mental illness and agree to take antipsychotic drugs as a condition of their release.
Pt 2: After experiment was revealed threatened hospitals that he would send in more pseudopatients. Hospitals identified large number of patients as imposters, though he never sent more in.

Front 27

Calhoun

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Dysfunctional. Crowding effect. Box divided into four parts and put mice in to live. Mice lived happily and healthily and reproduced normally. However, once the space was limited the mice demonstrated deviant social behaviors, including wounding young, dominate males unable to defend territory, passivity of non-dominant males, over-aggressive females, decreased reproductivity rates and lifespans.

Front 28

Beck

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Dysfunctional. Cognitive Therapy. Depressed patients developed a negative cognitive bias and are shaped by their self-depricating beliefs. Believes problems are caused by distorted thinking and unrealistic beliefs. Therapists encourage the client to empirically test the accuracy of his or her assumptions and beliefs. Therapist strives to create climate of collaboration.

Front 29

Ellis

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Dysfunctional. Rational-Emotive Therapy. ABC Model-When Activating event (A) occurs, it is the person's beliefs (B) about the event that cause emotional Consequences (C). A person must identify the core irrational beliefs that underlie personal distress and then the therapist must dispute and challenge those irrational beliefs.

Front 30

Freud

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Dysfunctional. Stress of early childhood experiences which provide the foundation for later personality development. Competition between ego, id, and superego or failure to move out of oral, anal, latent, phallic, or genital stage can produce mental distress. Used free association and dream interpretation to counsel patients

Front 31

Jones-Cover

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Dysfunctional. Counterconditioning. Treated (3 yr old) patient Peter, who seemed to be like Little Albert from Watson's experiment. Peter was afraid of all furry objects, including fur coats, cotton, and wool. She brought a rabbit in a cage within Peter's view and gave him his favorite snack. For two months the rabbits cage was inched closer and closer until Peter could actually hold and pet the rabbit while eating his snack with the other hand. Also used observational learning to help overcome fear. Peter would watch other children petting or holding the rabbit and would imitate their behaviors.

Front 32

Rogers

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Dysfunctional. Client-Centered Therapy. Believed therapist should be non directive and must not direct the client, make decisions, offer solutions, or pass judgement. Believed therapist must display genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.

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Drugs

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Dysfunctional. Depression, schizophrenia, anxiety, bipolar drugs available. Schizophrenia Drugs-antipsychotics reduce levels of dopamine and act on dopamine receptors.
Antianxiety Drugs-benzodiazepines (valium and Xanax most common) increase GABA (inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses to brain and slows brain activity)
Bipolar-Lithium helps stabilize the neurotransmitter glutamate preventing both abnormal highs and lows.
Depression-Antidepressents, most increase norepinephrine and serotonin levels. SSRI affect serotonin only by targeting specific pathways (prozac, zoloft). Dual-Reuptake Inhibitors affect norepinephrine and serotonin (cymbalta)

Front 34

Dopamine Hypothesis

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Dysfunctional. Schizophrenia is related to excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Two evidence support this-antipsychotic drugs like Haldol, THorazine, and Stelazine reduce or block dopamine activity and reduce symptoms in many people. Also, drugs that enhance dopamine activity (amphetamines and cocaine) can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms in normal adults or increase symptoms in schizophrenic people.

Front 35

Wolpe

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Dysfunctional. Systematic Desensitization-Learning a new conditioned response (relaxation) that is incompatible with or inhibits the old conditioned response (fear and anxiety).

Front 36

Paternal Age

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Dysfunctional. Older paternal age of father contributes to schizophrenia because sperms divide throughout lifespan, which means there is a greater chance of a mutation occurring. Men 45-49 2X as likely to father children with schizophrenia then men under 25, men 50+ 30X as likely. Mother's age played no role

Front 37

Twin Studies

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Dysfunctional. Family studies have shown schizophrenia tends to cluster in certain families. The more closely related a person is to someone with schizophrenia, the greater risk that person is at that she will be diagnosed with schizophrenia at some point. 50% risk of developing schizophrenia if identical twin has it.

Front 38

Ventricles & Gray Matter Theory

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Dysfunctional. 1/2 patients with schizophrenia have brain abnormality, including enlarged ventricles and loss of gray matter. Study took 12 adolescents with early-onset (before age 12) schizophrenia symptoms. Each patient was scanned repeatedly with MRI's over 5 years. In comparison with healthy teenagers, patients showed severe gray matter loss.