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123 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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memory |
the capacity to encode, share, and retrieve info |
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explicit memory |
conscious effort to recover information through memory |
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implicit |
availability of information through memory without conscious effort |
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declarative memory |
memory for facts and events |
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procedural memory |
memory for how to do things; the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used |
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production compilation |
the mental commands that produce separate actions get compiled together |
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1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval |
Three Mental Processes |
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encoding |
processing of information that leads to representation in memory |
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storage |
the retention of encoded material over time |
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retrieval |
the recovery of stored information from memory |
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iconic memory |
memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations |
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Modal Model of Memory |
model consisting of three separate stores that vary in trace duration which describes the exchange of information between these stores |
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sensory memory |
fleeting representation of sensory information; Capacity: very large; Duration: (most to least) echoic 4 seconds (hearing), haptic (touch), iconic (visual) |
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short term memory |
brief preservation (awareness) of recent experience or retrieval from long term memory; Capacity 5-9 items; Duration: 30 sec unless rehearsed |
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chunking |
the process of taking single terms of information and recording them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle |
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working memory |
controls use of information in short-term memory; tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension |
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1. The Phonological Loop - processes verbal information 2. The Visuospatial Sketchpad - processes visual information 3. The Central Executive - controls attention (dictates how much we concentrate on various things) 4. The Episodic Buffer - manages the interaction between working memory and long-term memory
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Types of Working Memory |
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long term memory |
retention of information over an extended period of time; Capacity: unlimited; Duration: potentially life long but some forgetting |
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structuring |
categorizing the information in long term memory |
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1. Concepts 2. Schema 3. Hierarchies |
Types of Structuring |
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concepts |
mental groupings of similar things (consists of exemplars and prototypes) |
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schema |
general knowledge on a concept |
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hierarchies |
structural organization of concepts |
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exemplar |
member of a category that people have encountered |
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prototype |
the most representative example of a category |
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recall |
a method in which an individual is required to reproduce the information previously presented |
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recognition |
a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced before |
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mnemonic |
strategy of device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in the memory |
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metamemory |
implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory |
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Declarative/Explicit |
conscious, expressed; takes place in hippocampus |
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1. Semantic Memory - facts 2. Episodic Memory - life events |
Types of Declarative Memory |
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Non-declarative/Implicit |
unconscious, performed; takes place in the cerebellum |
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1. Procedural - skills 2. Conditioning - associations |
Types of Non-declarative Memory |
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encoding specificity |
principle that retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding |
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maintenance rehearsal |
repeating information over and over again |
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rote learning |
try to memorize information via repeated exposure |
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elaborative rehearsal |
rehearsing data by building on the information provided; Techniques: imposing structure, emphasizing meaning, using imagery |
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1. Cues 2. Interference 3. Reconstruction 4. Amnesia |
Influences on Retrieval |
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cues |
stimuli that helps us to find specific memories |
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encoding specificity principle |
remembering is better if cues present at encoding are also available at retrieval |
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1. Feature (of item) 2. External context (of learning situation) 3. Internal context (of learner)
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3 Categories of Cues |
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interference |
the inability to remember information due to other competing items of info |
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proactive interference |
previous memory blocks a new memory |
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retroactive interference |
new many blocks a previous memory |
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associative interference |
similar memories block each other |
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serial position effect |
enhanced memory for items at the beginning (primary) and the end of a set (recency) |
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reconstruction |
memories are not like photographs, we rebuild previous events so that they make sense; informed by general knowledge (schema); can cause false memories |
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eidetic memory |
extraordinarily detail recall |
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amnesia |
failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma |
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retrograde amnesia |
forgetting existing memories |
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anterograde amnesia |
inability to form new memories |
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temporal distinctiveness |
the extend to which a particular item stands out from other items in time |
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transfer appropriate processing |
the perspective that suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the process carried out at retrieval |
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levels of processing |
suggests that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory |
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priming |
the advantage of being priorly exposed to a word or situation |
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cognition |
all forms of knowing |
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cognitive contents |
what you know (facts, rules, concepts) |
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cognitive processes |
how you manipulate contents (judgement, reasoning) |
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reaction time |
measuring how long it takes individuals to perform a task can help identify how many cognitive processes are being performed |
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1. Serial 2. Parallel |
Types of Processing |
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serial processesing |
controlled tasks require selected attention and must be performed one after another, typically used in novel tasks |
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parallel processing |
automatic tasks use divided attention and can be performed together; typically used in well-learned tasks; unfortunately (due to automaticity) it is very difficult to stop yourself from performing well-learned skills |
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1. Language 2. Problem Solving 3. Reasoning 4. Decision Framing |
Domains of Cognition |
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language |
consists of symbols that convey meaning and a system of rules for combining those symbols |
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1. Symbolic 2. Generative 3. Grammatical |
Properties of Language |
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symbolic property of language |
use words or signs to represent ideas and things |
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generative property of language |
they use limited amount of symbols to produce an infinite number of messages |
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grammatical property of language |
a set of rules that govern the construction, pronunciation, and ordering of words |
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Phonemes |
the pronunciation of words |
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Morphemes |
prefixes and suffixes of a word |
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syntax |
the way words are arranged in a sentence |
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semantics |
the study of of meaning |
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problem solving |
thinking that is directed towards solving specific conundrums, involves combining current information with information stored in long term memory |
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elements that make up a problem 1. initiate state - starting conditions, incomplete information 2. goal state - aim for conditions, state you hope to obtain 3. operations - steps you can take
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problem space |
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1. algorithms - a step by step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem 2. heuristics - cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb", often used as shortcuts in solving tasks |
Problem Solving Methods |
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1. Representation 2. Functional Fixedness 3. Problem-solving set
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Problem solving is influenced by: |
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representation |
changing the way you visualize a problem can make it easier |
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functional fixedness |
the inability to perceive a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose |
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problem-solving set |
being fixated on previously learned ways of solving problems and failing to see better ways |
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reasoning |
the act of using mental powers to derive a conclusion from given information |
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1. Inductive 2. Deductive |
Types of Reasoning |
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Inductive reasoning |
using specific examples to draw general conclusions, making assumptions, reasoning "up" |
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Deductive reasoning |
using general statements to draw specific conclusions, reasoning "down" |
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1. Confirmation Bias 2. Belief Bias 3. Difficulty with Abstract tasks 4. Judgement and Decision Making |
Biases of Reasoning |
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confirmation bias |
the tendency to search for evidence that confirms one’s preconceptions |
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belief bias |
the tendency to assume that an argument is logical if the conclusion is factually true |
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reasoning with abstract material is much harder than reasoning with real-world material Because: 1. Practice makes perfect 2. We have evolved to be good at spotting real-world cheaters |
difficulty with abstract tasks |
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judgement |
forming opinions, reaching conclusions, and making critical evaluations |
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decision making |
choosing between other alternatives |
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1. Bounded rationality - people must make decisions under real-world conditions (limited time, info, and brain power), so we satisfice (good enough) instead of optimizing 2. Heuristics - satifice by using “rules of thumb” which are generally reliable but are subject to systematic biases
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Decision making influences |
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1. Availability 2. Representative 3. Anchoring and adjustment 4. Decision framing |
Types of Heuristics |
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availability heuristics |
judgements based on how easily information can be brought to mind (generally useful, fails when imagination/memory does not affect reality) |
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representative heuristic |
judgements based on how similar something is to a prototype (generally useful, fails when you ignore probability) |
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anchoring and adjustments |
basing judgements on adjustment from an original starting point
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decision framing |
1. the way in which questions are phrased can influence the decisions that people make, “gains” preferred to “losses”
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mental set |
the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used to respond to a previous problem
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psychometrics |
the field of psychology that specializes in the formal assessment of mental facets (Ex: intelligence, attitudes, or personality) |
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psychological assessment |
the use of specified procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of people |
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formal assessment |
the systematic procedures and measurement instruments used by trained professionals to assess an individual’s functioning, aptitudes, abilities, or mental states |
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test-retest reliability |
a measure of the correlation between the scores of the same people on the same test given on two different occasions |
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internal consistency |
a measure of reliability, the degree to which a test yields similar scores across different parts |
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1. Standardization - the same for everyone
2. Normalized -scored relative to the general population 3. Reliable - provides consistent results 4. Valid - measure what they are intended to measure |
Formal Assessment Procedures |
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a. Civil Service Exams - Imperial China (605-1905) b. United Kingdom - (1854-present) c. United States - (1871-present) |
Assessing “Occupational Suitability” |
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Sir Francis Galton - “Hereditary Genius” (1869): gathering evidence using historiometry (eminence in family trees), declares that ability is largely inherited - “Enquires into Human Facility and Development” (1882): because he believes that ability is largely inherited he advocates eugenics (improving the “quality” of future generations through selective breeding - breeding quality assessed using anthropmetry |
Assessing “Breeding Quality” |
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Alfred Binet |
at the request of the 1904 “special needs” commission, developed a test of child intellectual ability; the Binet-Simon scale; measure “Mental Age” (the chronological age typical of a given level of performance); children classified as advances, normal, or retarded
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Lewis Terman |
transformed the (French) Binet-Simon scale into the (American) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale; modified questions and used IG as his scoring system; (ratio IQ = mental age divided by actual age x 100) |
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Henry Goddard |
used adaptions of the Stanford-Binet on Ellis Island to selectively exclude the “mentally defective” |
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David Wechsler |
working at the Bellevue hospital, devised a test of adult intelligence for clinical use; The Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale scored using Deviation IQ; revised into the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for general use
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intellectual disabilty |
condition in which individuals have IQ scores of 70-75 or below and also demonstrate limitations in ability of adaptive skills |
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intelligence |
an umbrella concept covering a broad range of cognitive processes; underpins all higher-order thinking and decision making |
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Analytic Intelligence Charles Spearman Found: ability across a variety of tasks is positively correlated Concluded: every tasks requires general ability or “g” (skills that are specific to that task)
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general ability "g" |
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Analytic Intelligence Raymond Cattell Found: general ability can be broken down into two components Concluded: there is a crystallized, general intelligence (acquired knowledge) and fluid, general intelligence (ability to solve problems) |
fluid and crystalized general ability |
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Analytic Intelligence Louis Thurstone Found: some clusters of correlations are stronger than others Concluded: performance relies on factors or “primary mental abilities” (there is no “g”) |
primary mental ability |
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Analytic Intelligence Joy Paul Guilford Found: performance on a task depends on the underlying structure of that task Concluded: performance relies on 150 intellectual factors (there is no “g”)(contents, operations, and products) |
structure of intellect |
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Analytic Intelligence John Bissell Carroll Found: performance on a task depends on a hierarchy of cognitive abilities Concluded: intelligence requires: 1. Stratum 1 - specfic skills “s” 2. Stratum 2 - group factors “abilities 3. Stratum 3 - general ability “g |
three stratum model |
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Multiple Intelligence Robert Sternberg Found: there are three types of intelligence that work together Concluded: there are analytical, creative, and practical intelligence (problem solving, generating new solutions, and adapting to new circumstances) |
triarchic theory |
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Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner Found: there are multiple types of intelligence that work separately Concluded: there is linguistic, logical-mathematical, spacial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and other types of intelligence
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multiple intelligences |
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divergent thinking |
the ability to generate novel and appropriate responses |
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convergent thinking |
the ability to gather different sources of information to solve problems |
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1. Neurological basis 2. Influence of Nature and Nuture |
Determinants of Intelligence |
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1. Brain size (bigger = more neurons) 2. Neural density (connectivity) 3. Brain autonomy (frontal & parietal lobes) 4. Brain efficiency
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Neurological basis, difference inability appears to be linked to a number of factors: |
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heredity |
it is estimated that 50% of the differences between individuals’ test scores is due to genetics |
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a. Nutrition - linked with poor prenatal health, low birth weight and ability to concentrate b. Enrichment - access to information and ideas from computers, books, TV, school; a varied environment promotes intelligence c. Motivation - expectations of family and individuals affect ability |
Environment |
