Psycho

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1. What makes the study of human development a science?

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Human development is the scientific study of processes of change and stability.
The scientific study of human development began with studies of childhood during the nineteenth century. Adolescence was not considered a separate phase of development until the twentieth century, when scientific interest in aging also began.
As researchers became interested in following development through adulthood, life-span development became a field of study.

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What are the five steps of the scientific method?

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1) State the problem
2) gather information about the question
3) hypothesis
4) testing the hypothesis
5) draw a conclusion based on test results and report

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3. Why have recommendations regarding the sleeping circumstances of infants changed?

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To avoid sudden death syndrome parents have been advised to position the child belly up when sleeping to avoid suffocation

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4. Why is it a mistake to ask whether a specific characteristic is the result of nature or nurture?

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All characteristics are influenced by both genes and environment.

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5. What are examples of a critical period and a sensitive period of development?

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An example of a critical period of development is how ams, legs, hands, feet, fingers, and toes have to develop each over a specific period of time between 28 and 54 days after conception. While a sensitive period of development is that language is best learned early in life, and children can most easily learn their first language between the ages of 1 and 3, but they can learn it later.

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6. What factors make it more or less likely that a person will be a juvenile delinquent?

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genes which afftects the choices one makes as to who they will befriend and the envionrment they choose. as a result envionrment/ nurture also plays an important role in determining if someone will be a juvenile delinquent. The two largest predictors of juvenile delinquency are
parenting style, with the two styles most likely to predict delinquency being
"permissive" parenting, characterized by a lack of consequence-based discipline and encompassing two subtypes known as
"neglectful" parenting, characterized by a lack of monitoring and thus of knowledge of the child's activities, and
"indulgent" parenting, characterized by affirmative enablement of misbehavior)
"authoritarian" parenting, characterized by harsh discipline and refusal to justify discipline on any basis other than "because I said so";
peer group association, particularly with antisocial peer groups, as is more likely when adolescents are left unsupervised.[2]
Other factors that may lead a teenager into juvenile delinquency include, poor or low socio-economic status, poor school readiness/performance and/or failure, peer rejection, hyperactivity, or attention deficit disorder (ADHD). There may also be biological factors, such as high levels of serotonin, giving them a difficult temper and poor self-regulation, and a lower resting heart rate, which may lead to fearlessness. Most of these tend to be influenced by a mix of both genetic and environmental factors

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7. Why do developmentalists insist that differences among people not be assumed to be deficits?

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what might be considered a deficit to soneone, might be a benefit to person who has it

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8. How does the dynamic-systems concept interpret family relationships?

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a family is a system, all parts of a family effect the development of a person

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9. Does the multidirectional concept support continuity or discontinuity? Why?

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both, some aspects (such as the drastic changes at puberty) show discontinuity, while others (such as gradual aging) show continuity

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10. How does the ecological systems concept affect the way individual growth is perceived?

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Urie Brofenbrenner believed that we need to pay attention to all of the systems that impact an individual to understand their development

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11. What are the differences among Bronfenbrenner’s five systems of development?

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The 3 circles get broader in their relationships (microsystem - classroom; exosystem - school; macrosystem - governing bodies) mesosystem shows their interactions, and the chronosystem is representative of the passing of time

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12. How does cohort affect attitudes?

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they share certain life experiences and therefore, lessons and opinions

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13. What impact does family SES have? Explain for one particular stage; include three domains.

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it effects the way people percieve you, and the opportunities that you will have in the future.

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14. What are examples of the impact of culture on adolescents?

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the way that children develop langauge, social constructs, and what people's expectations are for them.

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15. Why do the three domains overlap?

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development is interdisciplinary, biological, cognitive, and social events impact the development in each of the other areas.

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16. What are the implications of the research on mirror neurons?

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It may help with the rehabilitation of brain damaged individuals

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17. What is the evidence that development is plastic?

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Human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a duribility of identity

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18. How do scientific observation and experimentation differ?

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observations are done in the natural environment, while experiments are set up and manipulated

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19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional research?

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It is fast and inexpensive, but it does not account for cohort differences

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20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal research?

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it takes many years to complete, but follows the same group of people

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21. Why do experiments need a control (or comparison) group?

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to rule out coincidence

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22. How do independent and dependent variables make it easier to learn what causes what?

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The independent variable should be what influences the dependent variable.

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23. Why does correlation not prove causation?

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They may seem to be related but another outside variable may be the cause

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24. Why do some researchers prefer quantitative research and others, qualitative research?

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some prefer hard numbers, and others prefer to have an accurate description of the occurances

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25. Why do most colleges have an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

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to ensure that everyone doing research follows ethical guidelines.

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26. What are the ethical priorities when scientists use human subjects in research?

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participants should be voluntary, information should be kept confidential, and the experiment shouldn't harm the person

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27. Why are some questions about human development not yet answered with scientific research?

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how prenatal drugs effect a fetus; how to allow people to die with dignity.

to test some things out is unethical.

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1. Know the difference between cross-sectional, longitudinal, time lag, and cross-sequential designs. What are limitations/problems with each design?

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- cross-sectional: form a class of research methods that involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time.
- longitudinal: is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time — often many decades.
- time lag: time when something is being waited for
- cross-sequential designs: research method that combines both a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design.

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2. What do correlations indicate? What do they NOT indicate?

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correlation just tells whether or not two variables occur together, it does not tell whether one is caused by the other.

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3. What is the ecological systems approach to the study of human development? Who came up with it? Know the name and definition of each of the levels. Be prepared to recognize or give examples of each level. Be prepared to understand how influences can move across levels.

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"Ecological systems theory is an approach to study of human development that consists of the 'scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life course, between an active, growing human being, and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which the developing person lives, as this process is affected by the relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded'" Bronfenbrenner’s came up with the ecological systems approach.
- microsystem: this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood, or childcare environments.
- The mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc.
- The exosystem – this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples.
- The macrosystem – this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers.
- The chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

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4. What do you call a group of people born within a few years of each other? What factors are at work making these groups different?

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cohort.

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5. What is the major focus of psychoanalytical theories?

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Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced behavior. Based on his observations, he developed a theory that described development in terms of a series of psychosexual stages. According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and behavior.

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6. What is the major focus of behaviorism? Why is reinforcement critical to this theory?

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The primary tenet of behaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. reinforcement is critical to teach the suspect the consequences of its actions. for example in skinners expermient he taught dogs to salivate through classical conditioning when it would hear a bell.

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7. What are the major premises of cognitive theory and what scientist is well known in the development of cognitive theory?

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Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. The foremost cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.

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8. Describe the sociocultural theory. What is the zone of proximal development and how does it relate to the sociocultural theory? Recognize examples.

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Sociocultural theory is a emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. the zone of promixal development was introducted by vygotsy. Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own yet, but is capable of learning with guidance.

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9. What is evolutionary theory?

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In broad terms, contemporary evolutionary theory builds on the synthesis of Darwin's ideas of natural variation and selection and Mendel's model of genetic inheritance accomplished by R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright in 1930-32.

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10. What is meant by the terms genotype and phenotype?

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- phenotype: This is the "outward, physical manifestation" of the organism.
- genotype: This is the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms. This stored information is used as a "blueprint" or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature. These instructions are found within almost all cells (the "internal" part), they are written in a coded language (the genetic code), they are copied at the time of cell division or reproduction and are passed from one generation to the next ("inheritable").

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11. How are twins formed (monozygotic and dizygotic)?

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monozygotic twins originate from a single zygote — or fertilized egg — and dizygotic twins come from two zygotes. Monozygotic twins are also called identical twins or maternal twins, and dizygotic twins are also called fraternal twins. Another difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins is how common they are;

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12. What are DNA? Chromosomes? Genes? Alleles?

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- DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
- In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.
- A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
- Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique physical features.

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13. Understand dominant/recessive patterns and additive patterns of inheritance.

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- one allele ( the dominant gene) has more influence than the other ( the recessive gene)
- recessive patterns show up when both parents contribute the recessive allele or neither parents show it but the child does.

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14. What kind of person is XX? XY? Who determines the gender of offspring?

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the father determines the gender of offspring since males carry both x and y chromosomes. but females only carry XX.

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15. Understand methods of assisted reproduction.

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- In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a process by which an egg is fertilised by sperm outside the body: in vitro. IVF is a major treatment for infertility when other methods of assisted reproductive technology have failed. The process involves monitoring a woman's ovulatory process, removing ovum or ova (egg or eggs) from the woman's ovaries and letting sperm fertilise them in a fluid medium in a laboratory.
- Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI, pronounced "eeksee"[1] or "icksy"[2]) is an in vitro fertilization procedure in which a single sperm is injected directly into an egg.

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16. Understand the ways in which nature and nurture interact.

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The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development. Some philosophers such as Plato and Descartes suggested that certain things are inborn, or that they simply occur naturally regardless of environmental influences. Other well-known thinkers such as John Locke believed in what is known as tabula rasa, which suggests that the mind begins as a blank slate. According to this notion, everything that we are and all of our knowledge is determined by our experience.

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. What are the prenatal stages of development and what are the significant developments that happen during each of those stages?

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- conceoption: one sperm penetrates egg from 40-150 million sperms available
- germinal period: the first 14 days. starts at conception. travels down fallopian tube toward uterus. implants . most dangerous time in life- at lease 60% do not survive.
- implantation: the zygote attaches to the lining of uterus. it often fails. thats the spot where placenta starts to form
- embryo period: 3rd- 8th week after conception. all body structures begin to develop
rapid development ex: limbs except sex organs
- fetus: 9th week until birth ( 40 weeks) longest prenatal period. sex organs develop. internal organs mature. grows to 7.5 pounds on average

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What is meant by viability? What percentage of zygotes actually survive to become living newborn infants?

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A doctor will say that a pregnancy is "viable" if there are no indicators of miscarriage and there is a reasonable expectation that the pregnancy will result in the birth of a live infant. A nonviable pregnancy would be a pregnancy in which there is no chance of a live infant being born, such as an ectopic pregnancy, a molar pregnancy, or a pregnancy in which the baby no longer has a heartbeat.40 % of zygotes survive and 60% dont make it.