Psych Test 2

Front 1

women must invest heavily in offspring, minimum of 9 months, reproduce relatively few offspring
men do not have to invest greatly, are capable of reproducing many, possible cuckoldry (paternity uncertainty)

Back 1

Mating differences between men and women

Front 2

Resources:
Economic resoures
Good financial prospects
High social status
Somewhat older
Dependability and Stability

Back 2

Women's mate preferences

Front 3

fertile:
Youth
Low WHR
Healthy:
Beauty as a health certificate
Facial symmetry
Clear Skin

Back 3

Men's mate preferences

Front 4

become more upset if brother's partner has sex with someone else and if sister's partner commits emotional infidelity.

Back 4

Jealousy differences

Front 5

________ show greater cortical activity when viewing children's faces that resemble them. (specifically in the left front cortex, this is the area linked with inhibiting negative responses)

Back 5

Men

Front 6

are higher in younger generations than in older ones.

Back 6

infidelity rates

Front 7

A change in behavior or belief in agreement with others

Back 7

Conformity

Front 8

Conforming to an implied or explicit request in public while privately disagreeing

Back 8

Compliance

Front 9

Conforming that also involves a change in belief

Back 9

Acceptance

Front 10

Conforming to an explicit request

Back 10

Obedience

Front 11

The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information. (i.e. we believe others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours)

Back 11

Informational Social Influence

Front 12

Subjects first estimate movement of pinpoint of light by themselves (autokinetic phenomenon)
Returned and completed task with 2 other on the 3 subsequent days

Back 12

Sherif Studies (1936)

Front 13

Motivation to be accurate increases informational social influence

Back 13

More on Norm Formation

Front 14

Suggestibility and Mass Hysteria (Epidemic Psychogenic Illness [EPI])

Back 14

Real life implication of Informational Social Influence

Front 15

Participants did task orally in groups
Other "subjects" were actually confederates.
Easy task; control group had 98%+ accuracy
Critical trials: confederates gave identical wrong answers.
Would subjects give correct or group answer?

Back 15

Asch's classic studies (1937), on conforming to group pressure

Front 16

Informational social influence: they thought maybe they were wrong. (not a good explanation because in "private" condition they conformed much less.

Back 16

Why do people conform?

Front 17

The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked, accepted, or not rejected. (public compliance but not necessarily private acceptance)

Back 17

Normative social influence

Front 18

Size of the group
Having an ally
When the group is cohesive or important. (the more cohesive [extent of "we-ness" of group] and the more important the group the more conformity)

Back 18

What influences conforming to group pressure

Front 19

The design
Participants arrived at the lab, ostensibly, with another participant (confederate; 47 yr. old, pleasant-looking, somewhat overweight fellow)
Milgram wearing white lab coat
Told study was on effect of punishment on learning
Participants always assigned to be the teacher
Confederate was the learner (word pair task)
Teacher had to give escalating shocks for incorrect responses (start at 15 volts, increase by 15)

Back 19

Milgram's classic obedience study

Front 20

People (students, Psychiatrists, working people) estimated they would stop complying by 135 volts (strong shock);
No one said more than 300
When asked what other people would do estimated that 1 in 1,000 would “go all the way” (to 450 or XXX)

Back 20

Estimates of compliance (Milgram's study)

Front 21

Average shock was 360 volts
95% went past complaints of pain
80% went past 150 (when learner mentions heart problems)
65% went “all the way”

Back 21

Results (Milgram's study)

Front 22

Teacher chooses shock level = 3%
Teacher sees two other teachers rebel = 10%
Experimenter leaves and ordinary person gives orders = 20%
Experimenter leaves and gives orders by phone = 23%
Teacher forcing learner's hand onto shock plate = 30%
Teacher and learner in same room = 40%
Office building instead of university = 48%
Original setup = 65%

Back 22

Variations on Milgram's Experiment

Front 23

Rule et al. (1985) found that people recalled more people trying to persuade them than people they tried to persuade

Back 23

Persuasion in everyday life

Front 24

Obtaining information; object; permission
Getting someone to do favor/help; engage in an activity
Changing someone’s opinion
Buying or selling something
Changing an existing relationship
Changing someone’s personal habit(s)
Helping a third party
Getting someone to do something against their self-interest

Back 24

What are people persuading others about? (persuasion in everyday life)

Front 25

The method by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Sometimes messages are “in your face.”
Other times, messages can be subtle but pervasive.

Back 25

Persuasion

Front 26

Central route, Peripheral route

Back 26

Two routes to persuasion

Front 27

Audience = Analytical and motivated
Processing = High effort: elaborate, agree, or counter argue
Persuasion = Cogent arguments evoke enduring agreement

Back 27

Central route to persuasion

Front 28

Audience = Not analytical or involved
Processing = low effort: use peripheral cues, rule-of-thumb heuristics
Persuasion = Cues trigger liking and acceptance, often only temporarily

Back 28

Peripheral route to persuasion

Front 29

An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communication can cause attitude change: centrally or peripherally

Participants read a strong or weak arguments for the institution of comprehensive exams
Strong: “Quality of education has increased at schools with these exams”.
Weak: “Most students would welcome the challenge of an exam”
Message came from an person with high or low expertise
Expert: Princeton professor
Non expert: High school student
Topic was personally relevant or not
Relevant: Start next year
Not relevant: Start in 10 years

Back 29

Elaboration likelihood model (petty and cacioppo, 1986) (aka heuristic-systemic model [chaiken, 1987])

Front 30

People elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments.
Occurs when people have both the ability and motivation to listen carefully and think about the argument
Compelling arguments evoke enduring persuasion

Back 30

Central route (two routes to persuasion)

Front 31

The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in the persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues (e.g., surface cues).
Occurs when we are busy, distracted, or uninvolved
Positive cues trigger acceptance but may be only temporary

Back 31

Peripheral route (two routes to persuasion)

Front 32

Who: Source of communication
What: The nature of the communication
How: Delivery of communication*
To whom: The nature of the audience

Back 32

Yale attitude change approach

Front 33

Credible communicators are more persuasive
-Trustworthy
-------Not trying to persuade; not in self-interest
-Experts
Attractive communicators are more persuasive
-Physically attractive
-Similar
--------Especially if it is subjective preference

Back 33

Who says it (Yale attitude change approach)

Front 34

Fear arousing images are effective in persuading people
-More effective if paired with a protective strategy
Messages that do not seem to be designed to persuade us are more effective
Two-sided (presenting some counter arguments) communications are more effective
-Especially if you can effectively counter argue and people initially were skeptical
Messages that evoke humor or are paired with pleasant feelings are persuasive
-Link message with good feelings
-Humor

Back 34

What is said (Yale attitude change approach)

Front 35

Right ear advantage
Politely or with a scowl
Primacy: All things being equal the information presented first is usually more persuasive
Recency: Sometimes the information presented last can be more persuasive
Face-to-face communication usually works best
-Print media effective for complex issues
-Mass media effective for minor issues
-Mass media can work through face-to-face communication

Back 35

How it is delivered (Yale attitude change approach)

Front 36

All things being equal the information presented first is usually more persuasive

(Message #1 --> Message #2--------(time)--------Response, Message #1 accepted)

Back 36

Primacy

Front 37

Sometimes the information presented last can be more persuasive
(Message #1---------(time)---------Message #2 --> Response, Message #2 accepted)

Back 37

Recency

Front 38

Involved or uninvolved (see ELM)
Distracted audiences are often more persuaded, especially by peripheral cues
Age: Attitudes that are not well formed are more persuadable
Need for cognition
Those high in need for cognition more often take the central route.
Those low in need for cognition more often take the peripheral route.

Back 38

To whom is it said (Yale attitude change approach)

Front 39

How can we resist persuasion or teach or children to resist persuasion?
-Follow the principles of immunization
**Give person a small challenge to their belief
**Have them build a resistance to that challenge
**Then they should be more prepared to fight off a “real” attack on their belief

Back 39

Attitude Inoculation

Front 40

Group members interact and influence one another (for more than a brief moment)
Interdependence or shared identity (an “us” quality)

Back 40

What is a group? (Group influence)

Front 41

People engaged in common activities or sharing the same space but having minimal direct interaction

Back 41

What is a collective? (Group Influence)

Front 42

-Early research was mixed
**Triplett (1898) found that children reeled fishing line faster in presence of others.
**Other research found that the presence of others hindered learning nonsense syllables, completing a maze, and performing complex problems.

Back 42

How does the presence of others affect performance? (Mere presence of others)

Front 43

Cockroaches did a maze task
-Difficult maze
-Easy maze
Completed with our without “audience”
-Alone
-With other cockroaches in the stands

Back 43

The cockroach study (Zajonc et al, 1969)

Front 44

In the easy maze condition: Ran the maze faster with an audience present than when alone
In the difficult maze condition: Ran the maze faster alone than with an audience present

Back 44

Cockroach performance

Front 45

Presence of members of the same species lead to:
Increased arousal, which:
Strengthened dominant response:
For easy task- correct response, performance enhancement
For difficult task- Incorrect response, performance impairment

Back 45

Zajonc Solution

Front 46

Mere presence of others:
-others present leads directly to arousal
**no mediating mechanism
Evaluation apprehension:
-Presence of others only leads to arousal if they can evaluate us
**Fear of negative evaluation leads to arousal.
Distraction:
-Presence of other leads to social facilitation only when they distract from task and create attentional conflict

Back 46

Why (Zajonc Solution)

Front 47

When you know that your contribution to the group cannot be distinguished, people may __________. That is, not contribute as much as they would if their individual contribution were distinguishable.

Individually observed = evaluation = social facilitation
Lost in crowd = no evaluation = social loafing

Back 47

Free Riding

Front 48

Make task challenging, appealing, involving
Have people work with people they feel close to (high cohesion, less _______________)

Notes. People in collectivistic cultures do less ____________. Women do less _____________. Why??

Back 48

How to avoid social loafing

Front 49

The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people are in a crowd, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
-The more people in a lynch mob, the more brutal their attack
-Warriors who use face paint and other identity hiding techniques are more vicious

Back 49

Deindividuation

Front 50

Deindividuation effects reflect the characteristics of the group norm:
-As personal identity goes down and internal controls are submerged, _______________ takes over
-Consequences of losing yourself to a group identity depend on what group you lose it to

Back 50

Social Identity Model (Postmes and Spears, 1998)

Front 51

Group Size
Physical Anonymity
Arousing or Distracting Activities
Loss of self-awareness

Back 51

Things that affect deindividuation

Front 52

Are two (or more) heads better than one?

Back 52

It depends (group decisions)

Front 53

The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in group’s thinking

Why?
-Persuasive arguments theory:
**Exposure to new arguments; more confidence
-Social comparison:
**If believing X is good, double X is great; distinguish self in group
-Social categorization:
**Distinguishing group from other groups

Back 53

Group Polarization

Front 54

Exposure to new arguments; more confidence

Back 54

Persuasive arguments theory (Group Polarization)

Front 55

If believing X is good, double X is great; distinguish self in group

Back 55

Social Comparison (Group Polarization)

Front 56

Distinguishing group from other groups

Back 56

Social Categorization (Group Polarization)

Front 57

The kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.
-Large impact on many fields
-Most evidence is case studies of historical decisions
-Has been empirical support for many of the factors suggested by Janis

Back 57

Groupthink (Janis, 1971)

Front 58

The group is highly cohesive, valued, and attractive (i.e. people want to be members).
The group is highly isolated and protected from hearing alternative viewpoints.
The group has a directive leader who controls the discussion and makes his or her wishes known.
The group is under stress (perceives threats).
The group has poor decision making procedures (i.e. no standard method to consider alternatives).

Back 58

Antecedents of Groupthink

Front 59

Illusion of invulnerability
Belief in the moral correctness of the group
Stereotyped views of outgroup
Self-censorship
Direct pressure on dissenters to conform
Illusion of unanimity
Mindguards

Back 59

Symptoms of groupthink

Front 60

Incomplete survey of alternatives
Failure to examine risks of the favored alternatives
Poor information search
Failure to develop contingency plans

Back 60

Leads to defective decision making

Front 61

Avoid isolation, consult with outsiders
Reduce conformity pressures; leader should not take a stand early; keep open mind
Establish strong norm for critical review; assign a devil’s advocate; second chance

Back 61

Preventing Groupthink

Front 62

One dramatic finding from developmental psychology (Plomin & Daniels, 1987) is that two children in the same family are, on average,

Back 62

as different from one another as two children selected at random

Front 63

Evolutionary psychologists study

Back 63

Both physical and psychological traits

Front 64

According to Brown (1987), in general, who is more likely to initiate intimacy?

Back 64

The higher status person

Front 65

Norms _________ behavior

Back 65

Prescribe

Front 66

Given the logic of evolutionary psychology, we can assume our distant ancestors preferred _______ foods.

Back 66

nutritious and energy-providing

Front 67

Research on the differences in men and women show all EXCEPT

Back 67

men tend to be more autocratic, women democratic

Front 68

Which statement about social norms is FALSE?

Back 68

Social norms are not affected by culture

Front 69

Evolutionary psychologists suggest that males are sexually assertive, while females are more selective of sexual partners because?

Back 69

Each strategy is likely to promote gene survival

Front 70

Maccoby (2002) found that girls tend to ____________ compared to boys.

Back 70

talk more intimately

Front 71

What cultural differences or similarities were found in the research on pedestrian interaction in the U.S. and Japan?

Back 71

Americans were more likely to greet the research confederate who greeted them

Front 72

Smoreda and Licoppe (2000) reported that when on the telephone, women's conversations with

Back 72

friends are longer than are men's

Front 73

Research on the Big 5 personality traits indicates that

Back 73

differences among these traits in different countries is quite small

Front 74

During a conversation, men are more likely than women to do all of the following EXCEPT?

Back 74

Smile more

Front 75

If we were to conclude that Milgram's obedient participants were particularly hostile and aggressive people, we would be

Back 75

committing the fundamental attribution error

Front 76

After hearing a great deal about the benefits of soy products from your friends, you decide to drink soy milk instead of cow's milk. You behavior is an example of

Back 76

Acceptance

Front 77

A classmate across the room yawns and then several other students yawn. This is an example of

Back 77

Social contagion

Front 78

The spread of bodily complaints within a school or workplace with no organic basis for the symptoms is called

Back 78

Mass hysteria

Front 79

Sherif is to the study of __________ as Asch is to the study of _________.

Back 79

Norm formation; conformity

Front 80

If you clean your room only because your parents order you to, your behavior is a form of

Back 80

Obedience

Front 81

How did Asch's studies of conformity differ from those of Sherif?

Back 81

Asch's participants could clearly see the correct judgement

Front 82

_____________ sometimes follows compliance

Back 82

Acceptance

Front 83

The experimenter in Milgram's study used all EXCEPT which of the following verbal prods to encourage participants to continue?

Back 83

"you will be penalized if you refuse to go on."

Front 84

In Western individualistic societies the word "conformity" carries

Back 84

A negative value judgement

Front 85

According to Myers, an unchallenged assumption in individualistic Western nations is that ___________ is good and ___________ is bad.

Back 85

Individualism; conformity

Front 86

In follow-up experiments to his initial study, Milgram made the learner's protests more compelling by having him complain of a heart condition, then scream and plead for release, and finally refuse to answer. With this added condition,

Back 86

the majority of participants still fully obeyed the experimenter's demands.

Front 87

A communicator is said to be ____________ when he or she is perceived as both and expert and trustworthy.

Back 87

credible

Front 88

According to the text, the factor that determines if we call attempts at persuasion "education" or "propaganda" is whether or not...

Back 88

we believe them

Front 89

Which of the following must take place before a message is likely to persuade?

Back 89

attention to the message

Front 90

Which route to persuasion is most likely to create long-lasting attitudes and behavioral changes?

Back 90

central

Front 91

American's support for the Iraq war increased after the war began mainly because of the....

Back 91

persuasive messages in the U.S. media

Front 92

The _________ effect occurs when we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.

Back 92

Sleeper

Front 93

An audience is more likely to perceive a speaker as sincere when

Back 93

the speaker argues against their own self-interest

Front 94

Sally is interested in purchasing a DVD player. She decides to consult a magazine devoted to reviewing the quality of home electronics. After reading a number of articles stating the pros and cons of each model, she decides on a DVD player. Sally has been persuaded to purchase this particular DVD player because of the _______ route to persuasion.

Back 94

central

Front 95

Research has found that ___________ speakers are rate as more objective, intelligent, and knowledgeable

Back 95

fast

Front 96

Brock (1965) found that paint store customers were more influenced by the testimony of an

Back 96

ordinary person who recently bought the same amount of paint as them.

Front 97

According to Aronson (1997), when fear aroused by a persuasive message is revelant to a pleasurable activity (e.g. sex or smoking) the result is often

Back 97

denial.

Front 98

In your marketing class, your assignment is to create an advertisement that will encourage people to buy condom X over condom Y. Given your knowledge of persuasion, which strategy would be most effective?

Back 98

an ad that reads "AIDS kills" along with a suggestion that condom X prevents it.

Front 99

When two messages are back to back, followed by a time gap, the _________ effect usually occurs.

Back 99

primacy

Front 100

Consistent with the social facilitation effect, Michaels and his colleagues (1982) found that when good pool players were observed, they did _______ than when they did not know they were being observed.

Back 100

Better

Front 101

Under the definition that is in the text, which of the following is NOT group?

Back 101

Five people riding the city bus

Front 102

Ingham (1974) found that when blindfolded participants thought they were pulling a tug of war with other participants, they ____________ than when they thought they were pulling alone

Back 102

Pulled less

Front 103

When people learn about others' positions, without making a prior commitment and without discussing their own position, they will

Back 103

adjust their responses to be more in line with others' position

Front 104

Sam has a tendency to contribute little effort to group assignments, as he thinks others will be sure to pick up the slack in an effort to get a good grade. Social psychologists would call Sam a

Back 104

Free rider

Front 105

People in groups will loaf less when the

Back 105

task is challenging, appealing, or involving.

Front 106

You are hesitant to ask questions in class because you assume everyone else understands and you would therefore seem foolish. Your thinking best exemplifies

Back 106

Pluralistic ignorance

Front 107

Increased arousal enhances performance

Back 107

on dominant responses

Front 108

According to your text, people in ____________ cultures exhibit less social loafing than people in ____________ cultures.

Back 108

collectivistic; individualistic

Front 109

Research on brainstorming reveals that people working __________ will generate _____________ good ideas.

Back 109

alone; more

Front 110

Which of the following is a comment you are LEAST likely to hear being made within a group characterized by groupthink?

Back 110

"Let's weigh all the alternatives carefully before we proceed"

Front 111

Which of the following is NOT a prescriptive strategy to prevent groupthink from developing?

Back 111

Group members should be kept together as one unit and not divided into separate discussion subgroups.

Front 112

According to conformity research, a group's social power is deflated when

Back 112

just one other person also differs from the majority

Front 113

People tend to have different social and political attitudes depending on their age because the attitudes older people adopted when they were young persist through life largely unchanged. This refers to the _____________ explanation for how age plays a role in persuasion

Back 113

Generational

Front 114

The best way to improve individual performance by a group is to

Back 114

evaluate each person individually

Front 115

Your mother has commented on how little time your older sister, who recently married, spends on housework, as compared to what she herself used to spend when she was a newlywed. Your mother's comment reflects how gender roles

Back 115

Vary over time

Front 116

Bearman and Brueckner (2001) found that teens who made a public virginity-until-marriage pledge became somewhat more likely to remain sexually abstinent than similar teens who do not make the pledge. This is an example of how

Back 116

public commitment reduces susceptibility to social influence

Front 117

The text suggests that the extremism of terrorist organizations, such as those involved in the September 11th attacks on the United States, is very likely the result of the naturally occurring process of

Back 117

Group Polarization

Front 118

Researchers found that difficult messages are most persuasive when _______, and easy messages are most persuasive when _______.

Back 118

Written; videotaped

Front 119

Research on the Big 5 personality traits have been shown to be universal. Which is NOT one of the five?

Back 119

Shy

Front 120

High school students Aisha & Jared have been dating each other casually. When Aisha’s parents tell her to stop seeing Jared & ask her to go out with “nicer boys,” Aisha announces that she & Jared are actually “in love” & have decided to go steady. Aisha’s behavior most likely illustrates the effects of

Back 120

Psychological reactance

Front 121

Which of the following is an example of group polarization in one's community?

Back 121

Gang delinquency

Front 122

Evolutionary psychology has been criticized for

Back 122

Hindsight biases

Front 123

In experiments, people have been found to conform more when they must __________ than when they must ___________.

Back 123

Respond publicly; write down their responses in private

Front 124

Deindividuation is _____________ likely when self-awareness is ___________.

Back 124

Less; High

Front 125

People with ___________ self-esteem are the easiest to influence

Back 125

moderate

Front 126

People who are made self-aware by acting in front of a mirror or TV camera have been found to

Back 126

behave more consistently with their attitudes

Front 127

The names we choose for our children often express our

Back 127

desire for uniqueness

Front 128

According to the text and lecture, women of all ages tend to prefer men ____________ themselves.

Back 128

the same age as

Front 129

When giving a speech in class, you spend most of the first five minutes wondering what your audience is thinking of you. This is a good example of _____ instead of thinking about what you are saying.

Back 129

driven by distraction

Front 130

Rivalry between groups is often most intense when the groups

Back 130

closely resemble each other

Front 131

According to Festinger (1954), it is human nature to want to evaluate our opinions by

Back 131

comparing ourselves with others

Front 132

The Bennington College study revealed that

Back 132

views embraced at an impressionable time often survive a lifetime of experience

Front 133

Which of the following is a universal norm according to the textbook?

Back 133

Incest

Front 134

In light of the Milgram studies, which of the following is NOT one of the factors that determined obedience?

Back 134

The victim's similarity to the teacher

Front 135

Maggie favors the death penalty. In discussing this issue with some like-minded classmates, she hears arguments for this position that she has never considered before. After the discussion, her opinion is more extreme. This outcome is best explained by

Back 135

informational influence processes

Front 136

Twin and adoption studies indicate that genetic influences explain approximately ___ percent of individual variations in personality traits.

Back 136

50

Front 137

A cult has all of the following characteristics EXCEPT

Back 137

isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture.

Front 138

When Regina returned to the U.S. after two years in Madagascar, she felt uncomfortable and out of place. She was experiencing

Back 138

Reentry distress

Front 139

Evolutionary explanations of gender differences have been criticized because they

Back 139

do not explain cultural changes in behavior that occur over relatively short periods of time

Front 140

Compared to people in individualistic countries, those in collectivist countries are

Back 140

more responsive to others' influence