Psych Gre Review - Social

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Balance Theory

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Created by Fritz Heider

Forerunner to cog dissonance

"Sentiment" (liking relationships) are balanced if the affect valence in a system multiplies out to a positive result (3+; 2-&1+ NOT 2+,1-; 3-)

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Cognitive Dissonance

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Creator: Leon Festinger

Post-decisional Dissonance: occurs after choice contradicting feelings/beliefs

Free-choice Dissonance: choosing btwn equally-desirable alternatives

Forced-compliance Dissonance: behav inconsistently w/ attitudes

Solution: increase consonance/decrease dissonnance or selective exposure to info, confirmation bias

Best explains when behav contradicts belief

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Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

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Ppts asked to complete boring task

Bribed either $1 or $20 to lie to next ppt (confederate) that task was fun

Ppts paid $1 reported more fun later because they apparently compensated for cog dis from lying for measly $1; $20 ppts felt no such pressure

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Self-perception Theory (SPT)

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Creator: Daryl Bem

Unlike cog dis, does not assume pos self-image is motivator

Rather, we simply infer an assoc btwn behav & attitudes - e.g. "I must like X because I do X all the time".

Best explains when we are unsure of our attitudes

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David Rosenhan (1973)

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Infiltrated mental hospitals complaining of "hearing voices" when actually perfectly healthy

Docs pathologized ordinary behavs - e.g. writing in journal = compulsive note-taking

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Overjustification Effect

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If you pay someone to perform something they like/a hobby, they will like that task less

Hobby becomes a job; task associated w/ pay & not fun

Explained by self-perception theory which assocs actions w/ outcomes or beliefs

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Sleeper Effect

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Carl Hovland

While perceived credibility of source boosts a message, messages become disentangled from their sources over time

Therefore, the persuasive power of high-cred sources drops over time while the opp occurs for low-cred sources (sleeper effect)

The message sleeps in the listener's mind and gains credence as the original reason for discounting (the low-cred source) is forgotten

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Persuasion - arguing against perceived self-interest

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Carl Hovland & assoc.

Works really well

Unsurprising if a criminal argues against police brutality, but shocking ig they support stiff prison sentences

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Persuasion - Two-sided messages

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Effective for giving the mere appearance of balance

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Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (ELM)

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Petty & Cacioppo

2 Paths for Message

Central: high elaboration - most effective for invested audiences, but boomerang effect if aud already disagrees

Peripheral: e.g. source expertise or attractiveness - can cause temporary opinion change (that may become permanent) w/ uninterested aud

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Inoculation Theory

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William McGuire

Cultural truisms - e.g people should bathe daily - vulnerable to attack because they are assumed & not actively defended by people

Inoculation = strengthening of a truism by being confronted w/ weak attacks along w/ refuted counterarguments in anticipation of those attacks

Therefore, best strategy = discrediting attack arguments before someone is exposed to them

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Reactance

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If you try too hard to persuade, listener will choose to hold opp belief out of stubborn stupidity

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Social Comparison Theory

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Leon Festinger (cog dis)

We create our attitudes & beliefs and maintaing our self-image by comparing ourselves to (preferably similar) others

Upward social comparison - to social betters

Downward social comparison - opp direction

You choose approach depending on self-esteem/context

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Social Comparison & Normative Influence in Group Polarization

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e.g. Bandwagon Effect

After learning what everybody else thinks, you are more likely to lean towards perceived "avg", inadvertently tipping avg in a more extreme direction

e.g. opinion poll swaying voters, blockbuster after glowing critic review

Social comparison -> unleashes arguments (informational influence) supporting what everyone secretly favors

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Does anxiety increase one's desire for affiliation?

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Yes, according to exps by Stanley Schachter

Also, the anxious seek out similarly-anxious people - so it's a self-perpetuating effect

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Reciprocity Hypothesis

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We like people who like us & dislike people who dislike us

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Gain-Loss Theory of Attraction

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modification to Reciprocity H, Aronson & Linder

An evaluation that changes is more influential than a constant evaluation

E.g. A compliment from a normally-critical person means more than from someone who is usually sweet anyway

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Social Exchange Theory

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When decided to form a relationship or help someone, we weight the costs & benefits

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Equity Theory

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In contrast to social exchange theory, posits that we prefer it when relationships are equal in terms of devotion

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Need Complementarity

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Explains cases where opposites attract (usually, birds of a feather flock together)

e.g. gregarious best w/ quiet, dominant attracted to submissive

Realistically, similarity is better for some dimensions (intel, income, edu, values) while complementarity is better for others

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Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

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Tendency to assume that people who are physically attractive also possess other socially desirable personality traits

It is a particular example of the halo effect (Thorndike)

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Mere Exposure Effect

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People tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

AKA the familiarity principle

Robert Zajonc

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Factors Contributing to the Bystander Effect

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Ambiguity

Social Influence

Diffusion of Responsibility

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Pluralistic Ignorance

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A majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it

Important factor in Bystander Effect

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Daniel Batson's Empathy-Altruism Model

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Non ego-based theory of altruism

Empathy can supersede the normal cost-benefit analysis but only if triggered

Altruism dependent upon: initial empathy w/ the other person, perceived benefit of being empathetic, "ease of psychological escape" (how easy to conveniently forget or excuse)

Evidence: High-empathy indivs happy if someone's situation improves even when they themselves could not help - suggesting that the reward is not in the helping, but in the happiness of the other person

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Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

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Aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to attain a goal

Scapegoating: When the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target.

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Realistic Group Conflict Theory

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Prejudice arises when groups compete for scarce resources

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Social Learning Theory

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Albert Bandura

Aggression is modeled after others' behavior and/or reinforced

Famous Bobo doll Exp

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Muzafer Sherif's Conformity Study

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Relied upon autokinetic effect

Ppts placed in dark room either alone or w/ confederates to estimate mvmt of stationary point of light (an illusion)

Estimates differed btwn alone & group conditions, suggesting ppts adjusted their natural estimates

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Solomon Asch's Conformity Study

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This is the one where lines of different lengths were drawn on cards

NOT about the autokinetic effect (Sherif's)

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Foot-in-the-Door & Door-in-the-face Effects

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Foot-in-the-Door: compliance with a small request increases likelihood of compliance with a larger request (similar to lowball technique)

Door-in-the-Face: refusing a large initial request actually increases compliance w/ a secondary smaller request

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Who were the researchers behind the "doll preference study"? Can the original findings be replicated today?

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Clark & Clark (1947)

And no, better control methods (e.g. experimentor's race) and changing culture have made it to where black children appear to have positive attitudes towards their own race

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Primacy Effect in Impression Formation

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Solomon Asch (lines conformity exp)

Ppts given list of traits for a hypothetical person

If list started w/ negative (envious, lazy), this person rated more poorly than one described w/ exact same list in reverse-order (pos 1st)

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Who could be called the founder of attribution theory? (also came up w attitude balance theory)?

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Fritz Heider

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If given reasons for someone's behavior or if we know a certain behavior to be scripted, does our tendency towards dispositional attributions decrease?

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No

e.g. Even when told that students were assigned positions on an issue, ppts still believed the students' written arguments were indicative of their true beliefs

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Gender Diffs in Regards to the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

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On avg, women show a less pronounced halo effect for physical attractiveness

However, a reverse-halo effect is found when women judge attractive women - perhaps accounting for the initial finding

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Who is the primary researcher involved in studying the Just World Effect?

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Melvin J. Lerner

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Lerner's Exp for Just World Effect

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Ppts watched a "learner" answer questions, get them wrong, and receive painful shocks as a result.

When the observer was unable to stop the suffering, they chose to devalue and reject the victim.

The greatest rejection of the victim was seen in the martyr condition. The more noble the victim, the stronger the need to devalue the victim and make the suffering of the victim "just"

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Who is the founder of Social Learning Theory?

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Albert Bandura

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Who are the founders of social judgment theory (SJT) and realistic conflict theory?

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Muzafer & Carolyn Sherif

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Robber's Cave Experiment

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Exp Behind Realistic Conflict Theory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QGNxRGgBwM

Stage 1: Two groups of boys separately go through week-long summer camps & bond as groups

Stage 2: Two groups brought together and forced to compete - fighting ensues, escalating to even phys violence

Stage 3: Boys given various activities where they must cooperate toward superordinate goals. Shared activities where cooperation was not required (going to movie theater, eating dinner together) did not help.

After Stage 3, boys from both groups close to each other from cooperation

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Who was the principle researcher in conceptualizing groupthink?

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Irving Janis

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Who created cognitive dissonance theory?

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Leon Festinger

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Who is considered the founder of experimental social psych?

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Floyd Henry Allport

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Social Facillitation

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Robert Zajonc - The mere presence of other people will enhance the performance in speed and accuracy of well-practiced tasks, but will degrade the performance of less familiar tasks

This is because so-called dominant responses are more likely to be emitted in an evaluative context; if you are a novice, your dominant responses are likely incorrect because they are unpracticed/corrected

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Risky Shift

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Group decisions are, on avg, riskier than indiv decisions

Probably not result of value hypothesis (risk-taking culturally-valued).

Instead, an example of group polarization - so group decision can lean towards cautious extreme depending on context.

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What were the 3 leadership styles in Kurt Lewin's Study and how do they compare?

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Laissez-faire, Democratic, Autocratic

Laissez-faire: less efficient, less organized, and less satisfying for the boys

Autocratic: more hostile, more aggressive, and more dependent on their leader

Democratic: more satisfying & cohesive

Autocratic groups got more work done, but work motivation and interest were stronger in democratic groups

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Bogus Pipeline

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a fake polygraph used to get participants to truthfully respond to emotional/affective questions

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Prisoner's Dilemma & Trucking Company Game

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Both show how indivs tend to act in own self-interest out of distrust for others, even when it's mutually-beneficial to compete

The latter couches this observation in econ terms - by explaining why companies drive down prices through competition rather than cooperate to fix prices

Work of Morton Deutsch

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According to Paul Ekman, what are the 6 basic human emotions?

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Sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust

Based on cross-cultural comparisons