Social Psych

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Social Cognition

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The way in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world.

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The 2 ways we process information

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Serially (one thing at a time) and In Parallel (multiple things at a time)

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Dual-Process Models of Social Cognition

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Theories of social cognition which propose that people employ 2 broad cognitive strategies to understand and respond to social stimuli, one involving effortless thinking and the other involving effortful thinking

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Explicit Cognition

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Deliberate judgments of decisions of which we are consciously aware

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Implicit Cognition

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Judgments or decisions that are under the control of automatically activated evaluations occurring without our awareness

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Motivated-Tactician Model

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An approach to social cognition that conceives of people as being flexible social thinkers who choose among multiple cognitive strategies based on their current goals, motives, and needs

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Thought Suppression

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The attempt to prevent certain thoughts from entering consciousness

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Category

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A mental grouping of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties. Also known as concept

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Social Categorization

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The process of forming categories of people based on their common attributes

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Prototype

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The most representative member of a category

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Schema

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An organized structure of knowledge about a stimulus that is built up from experience and that contains casual relations; it is a theory about how the social world operates

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Script

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A schema that describes how a series of events is likely to occur in a well-known situation, and which is used as a guide for behavior and problem solving

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Priming

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The process by which recent exposure to certain stimuli or events increases the accessibility of certain memories, categories, or schemas

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Heuristics

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Time-saving mental shortcuts that reduce complex judgments to simple rules of thumb

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Representativeness Heuristic

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The tendency to judge the category membership of things based on how closely they match the "typical" or "average" member of that category

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Availability Heuristic

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The tendency to judge the frequency or probability of an event in terms of how easy it is to think of examples of that event

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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

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A tendency to be biased toward the starting value or anchor in making quantitative judgments

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Hindsight Bias

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The tendency, once an event has occurred, to overestimate our ability to have foreseen the outcome

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Counterfactual Thinking

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The tendency to evaluate events by imagining alternative versions or outcomes to what actually happened

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False Consensus Effect

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The tendency to overestimate how common one's own attitudes, opinions, and beliefs are in the general population

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False Uniqueness Effect

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The tendency to underestimate how common one's own desirable traits and abilities are in the general population

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Confirmation Bias

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The tendency to seek information that supports our beliefs while ignoring disconfirming information

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

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The process by which someone's expectations about a person or group leads to the fulfillment of those expectations

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Just-World Belief

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A belief system in which the world is perceived to be a fair and equitable place, with people getting what they deserve

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Learned Helplessness

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The passive resignation produced by repeated exposure to negative events that are perceived to be unavoidable

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Belief

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An estimate of the probability that something is true

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Attitude

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A positive or negative evaluation of an object

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Implicit Attitude

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An attitude that is activated automatically from memory, often without the person's awareness that she or he possesses it

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Explicit Attitude

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A consciously held attitude

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Dual Attitudes

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The simultaneous possession of contradictory implicit and explicit attitudes toward the same object

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Values

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Enduring beliefs about important life goals that transcend specific situations

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Mere Exposure Effect

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The tendency to develop more positive feelings toward objects and individuals the more we are exposed to them

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Classical Conditioning

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Learning through association, when a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is paired with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that naturally produces an emotional response

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Subliminal Conditioning

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Classical conditioning that occurs in the absence or conscious awareness of the stimuli involved

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Operant Conditioning

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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment

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Self-Perception Theory

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The theory that we often infer our internal states, such as our attitudes, by observing our behavior

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Functional Approach

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Attitude theories that emphasize that people develop and change their attitudes based on the degree to which they satisfy different psychological needs. To change an attitude, one much understand the underlying function that the attitude serves

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Utilitarian Attitude

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Helps the person to achieve rewards and gain approval from others; behaviorist

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Knowledge Attitude

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Helps the person to structure the world so that it makes sense; cognitive

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Ego Defense Attitude

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Helps the person protect himself or herself from acknowledging basic self-truths; Psychoanalytic

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Value-Expression Attitude

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Helps the person express important aspects of the self-concept; Humanistic

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Factors to Determine the Attitude-Behavior Relationship

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Level of attitude-behavior specificity, time factors, private vs public self-awareness, attitude strength, attitude accessibility

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Theory of Planned Behavior

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The theory that people's conscious decisions to engage in specific actions are determined by their attitudes toward the behavior in question, the relevant subjective norms, and their perceived behavioral control

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Behavior Intentions are Shaped By:

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attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control

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Cognitive Consistency

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The tendency to seek consistency in one's cognitions

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Cognitive Dissonance

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A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one's attitudes

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Self-Affirmation Theory

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A theory predicting that people will often cope with specific threats to the integrity of their self-concept by reminding themselves of other unrelated by cherished aspects of their self-concept

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Reference Group

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A group to which people orient themselves, using its standards to judge themselves and the world

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Persuasion

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The process of consciously attempting to change attitudes through the transmission of some message

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

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A theory that persuasive messages can cause attitude change in 2 ways: each differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration it requires

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Central Route Processing

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High elaboration of message content by focusing on information central to message

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Peripheral Route Processing

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Low elaboration of message content by focusing on information not central to message

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Sleeper Effect

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The delayed effectiveness of a persuasive message from a noncredible source

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Protection-Motivation Theory

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A theory proposing that fear induces both a self-protective response and an appraisal of whether the fear-arousing threat can be avoided

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Need for Cognition

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An individual preference for and tendency to engage in effortful cognitive activities

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Subliminal Perception

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Process of information that is just below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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Prejudice

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Attitudes toward members of specific groups that directly or indirectly suggest they deserve an inferior social status

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Discrimination

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A negative action toward members of a specific social group

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Explicit Prejudice

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Prejudice attitudes that are consciously held, even if they are not publicly expressed

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Implicit Prejudice

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Unconsciously held prejudicial attitudes

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Stigma

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An attribute that serves to discredit a person in the eyes of others

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Heterosexism

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A system of cultural beliefs, values, and customs that exalts heterosexuality and denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior or identity

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Courtesy Stigma

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The tendency for individuals who are associated with stigmatized people to face negative evaluations from others

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Form of prejudice directed toward a group is determined by 2 social factors:

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Whether the target group is perceived as having a competitive or cooperative relationship with mainstream society
Whether the target group is of low or high social status within mainstream society

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Contemptuous Prejudice

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Occurs when the target group has a competitive relationship with mainstream society and has low social status

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Envious Prejudice

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Occurs when the target group has a competitive relationship with mainstream society and has high social status

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Paternalistic Prejudice

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Occurs when the target group has a cooperative relationship with mainstream society and has low social status

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3 Different Types of Stigma

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Tribal identities, blemishes of individual character, and abominations of the body

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Outgroup Homogeneity Effect

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Perception of outgroup members as being more similar to one another than are members of one's ingroup

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Stereotypes

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Beliefs about people that put them into categories and don't allow for individual variation

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Illusory Correlation

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The belief that two variables are associated with each other when in fact there is little or no actual association

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Stereotype Threat

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A disturbing awareness among members of a negatively stereotyped group that any of their actions or characteristics that fit the stereotype may confirm it as a self-characterization

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2 Functions of Stereotyped Thinking:

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Fast and efficient. Often faulty

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Ingroup Bias

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Tendency to give more favorable evaluations and greater rewards to ingroup members than to outgroup members

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Social Identity Theory

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Theory suggesting that people seek to enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups as being better than other groups

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Realistic Group Conflict Theory

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Theory that intergroup conflict develops from competition for limited resources

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Ethnocentrism

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Pattern of increased hostility toward outgroups accompanied by increased loyalty to one's ingroup

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Superordinate Goal

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A mutually shared goal that can be achieved only through intergroup cooperation

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Social Dominance Theory

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A theory contending that societal groups can be organized in a power hierarchy in which the dominant groups enjoy a disproportionate share of the society's assets and the subordinate groups receive most of its liabilities

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Authoritarian Personality

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Personality trait characterized by submissiveness to authority, rigid adherence to conventional values, and prejudice toward outgroups

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Old-Fashioned Racism

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Blatantly negative stereotypes based on beliefs in the racial superiority of one's own group, coupled with open opposition to racial equality

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Aversive Racism

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Attitudes toward members of a racial group that incorporate both egalitarian social values and negative emotions, causing one to avoid interaction with members of the group

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Sexism

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Any attitude, action, or institution structure that subordinates a person because of her or his sex

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Ambivalent Sexism

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Sexism directed against women based on both positive and negative attitudes (hostility and benevolence), rather than uniform dislike

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Sexual Harassment

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Unwelcome physical or verbal sexual overtures that create an intimidating, hostile, or offensive social environment

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Contact Hypothesis

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The theory that under certain conditions, direct contact between antagonistic groups will reduce prejudice

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Intergroup Anxiety

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Anxiety due to anticipating negative consequences when interacting with an outgroup member

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Contact Hypothesis identifies 4 conditions to reduce prejudice:

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Equal status interaction, intergroup cooperation, sustained close contact, social norms favoring equality (other condition- friendship potential)

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Jigsaw Classroom

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A cooperative group-learning technique designed to reduce prejudice and raise self-esteem