Psych 241 Test 1

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development

Back 1

Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or “womb to tomb”.

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changes

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Changes are orderly, patterned and relatively enduring – not fleeting and unpredictable

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physical development

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Physical development: the growth of the body and its organs, the function of physiological systems, physical signs of againg, changes in motor abilities, and so on.

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cognitive development

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cognitive development: Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes.

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psychological development

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Psychosocial development: Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills, and relationships and roles plated in the family and in the larger society.

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growth

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• Growth: defined as the physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.

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biological aging

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• Biological aging: is the deterioration of organisms that inevitably leads to their death.

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development includes

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•  Development involves gains, losses, neutral changes and continuities in each phase of the life span.

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age grade vs age norms

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o Age grade: each socially defined age group in a society
o Age norms: expectations of what a person should and should not do at different points in their lifespan

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3 contexts

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• We must view development in HISTORICAL, CULTURAL & SUBCULTURAL context

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nature

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• Nature: heredity, universal maturational processes guided by genes, biologically based predispositions produced by evolution, and biological influences such as hormones and brain growth spurts.o Largely based on Maturation: the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the genes.

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nuture

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: Emphasizes changes due to the influences of one’s environment. External physical and social conditions, stimuli, and events that can affect us.
o Emphasizes learning – the process through which experience ( that is environmental stimuli) brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or behavior.

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nature vs nurture: short

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• Heredity, Maturation, Genes, Biologically base dispositions VS Environment, Learning, Experiences and cultural Influences

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• Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model of development

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• Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model of development to stress how biology and environment interact to produce development.
• Microsystem: an immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts face to face with other people and influences and is affected by them.
• Mesosystem: interrelationships or linkages between two or more Microsystems.
• Exosystem: Linkages involving social settings that individuals so not experience directly but can still influence their development.
• Macrosystem: larger cultural context in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded. Culture is often defined as the shared understandings and way of life of a people.
• Chronosystem: changes in people and their environments occur in a time frame.

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g stanley hall

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• G. Stanley Hall
o Adolescence 1904
 “storm and stress” – time o dramatic change; substantial changes in cognitive and social functioning during adolescence.

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7 lifespan development

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• Life-span prospective on human development began to emerge in the 60’s and 70’s
o 1) Development is a lifelong process
o 2) Development is multidirectional
o 3) Development involves both gain and loss (page 12)
o 4) Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity
o 5) Developmental is shaped by historical-cultural context
o 6) Development is multiply influenced
o 7) Understanding development requires multiple disciplines

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• Gerontology

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Gerontology (from Greek: γέρον, geron, "old man"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. "to talk about old age") is the study of the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging

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ses

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• Socioeconomis status (SES): The status in a society of an individual or family based on such indicators as occupational prestige, education, and income.

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Ethnocentrism:

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• Ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s own group and its culture are superior

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keep children safe 4

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o 1) childrens parents observed the session through a one way mirror so that they could say if the child was getting too upset
o 2) they played games that the child could win and not always feel defeated
o 3) children were debriefed about the real purposes of the study
o 4) children played and had snack time with the confederate

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respect the rights of the participants 4

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• Respect the rights of the participants:
o 1) allowing them to make informed and uncoerced decision about taking part in research
o 2) debriefing them afterward
o 3) protecting them from harm
o 4) treating any informational they provide as confidential

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species heredity

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• Species Heredity: the genetic endowment that members of a species have in common, including genes that influence maturation and again processes.

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CD's 3 main arguments

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• Charles Darwin’s main arguments
o 1) There is genetic variation in a species
o 2) Some genes aid adaptation more than others do
o 3) Genes that aid their bearers in adapting to their environment will be passed down to future generations more frequently than those genes that do not.

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evolution is about

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• Evolution is not just about genes: also about the interaction between gene and their environment
o An adaptation may be beneficial or harmful to the survival of an individual based on the kind of environment

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chromosomes

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• Human Genome Project
o 3.1 billion AGTC
• Chromosomes are threadlike bodies in the nucleus of each cell that are made up of genes, the basic units of heredity.

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HGP

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• Human Genome Project
o 3.1 billion AGTC

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genetic relatedness: crossing over and twins

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Genetic Uniqueness and Relatedness
• Crossing over: when pairs of chromosomes line up before they separate they cross over each other and parts of them are exchanged.
• Identical twins: monozygotic: when on fertilized ovum divided to form 2+ genetically identical twins
• Fraternal: when two ova are realized at the same time and each are fertilized

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down syndrom

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• Down syndrome
o Trisomy 21

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turner

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• Turner syndrome
o Female has only one X chromosome (XO)

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klinefelter

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• Klinefelter syndrome
o Male XXY

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fragile x

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• Fragile X syndrome
o One arm of the X chromosome is about to break off
 ++ males than females

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genetic couseling

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• Genetic counseling
o Helps people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease

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huntingtons

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• Huntington’s disease
o Strikes mid-age
o Motor disturbances & deteriorates the nervous system

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behavioral genetics

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• Behavioral genetics is the study of the extent to which genetic and environmental differences among people or animals are responsible for differences in their traits

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heritability

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• Heritability is the proportion of all the variability in the trait within a large sample of people that can be linked to the genetic differences among those individuals.

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Concordance rates

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• Concordance rates: the percentage of pairs of people studied in which if one member of a pair displays the trait, the other does too. If the concordance rates are higher for more genetically related than for less genetically related pairs of ppl, then the trait is heritable

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Three factors to individual differences in emotionality:

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• 1) Genes
• 2) Shared environmental influences
• 3) Nonshared environmental influences

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molecular genetics

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Molecular genetics: the study of certain genes and their effects

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developmental stages

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a stage is a distinct phase of the life cycle characterized by a particular set od abilities motives emotions or behaviors that form a coherent pattern

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psychoanalytic theory

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proposes that people are dirven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life

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freuds main idea:

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notion that humans have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied

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newborn seen as by freud

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"seething cauldron: and inherently selfish creature driven by instincts or inborn biological forces that motivate behavior

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unconscious motivation

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the power of instincts and other inner forces to influence behavior without awareness

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id

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at birth, all psychic energy resides in the id which is an impulsive irrational part of the personality who mission in to satisfy the instincts

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ego

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rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts : 1) perception 2) learning and 3) problem solving

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super ego

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"internalized moral standards" children internalize the moral standards and values of their parents

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libido

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psychic energy of the sex instinct that shifts from one part of the body to another seeking to gratify different biological needs

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5 psychosexual stages

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oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital

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defense mechanisms

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ego adopts unconscious coping devices called defense mechanisms

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fixation

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arrested development in which part of the libido remains tied to at an early stage

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regression

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which involves retreating to an earlier less traumatic stage of development

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when does psychosexual development stop?

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with adolescence and that the individual remains in the genital stage throughout adulthood

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erikson believed that

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humans experience eight psychosocial stages or conflicts

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erikson vs freud 4

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1) less emphasis on sexual urges and the drivers of development and more on social influences 2) less emphasis on the unconscious and the irrational and more on the rational ego and its adaptive powers 3) more positive view of human nature 4) mor emphasis on development after adolescence

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watson

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classical conditioning / behavorism

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behavorism

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belief that conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional processes

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classical conditioning

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simle form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual come to elicit a response though its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response

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unconditioned stimulus

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unlearned stimulus for fear

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conditioned stimulus

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the thing we want to cause the response

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conditioning

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the conditioned stimulus produces the unconditioned response

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skinner

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operant conditioning : where a learners behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces

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reinforcement

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when a consequence strengthens a response

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positive

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something has been added tot he situation

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negative reinforcement

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occurs when a behavorial tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation

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punishment

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decreases the strength of behavior or weakens it

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positive punishment

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when an unpleasant event is added to the situation following the behavior

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negative punishment

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when something pleasant is removed from the situation after a behavior

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extinction

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behavior that is ignored or no longer reinforced becomes less frequent through extinction

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criticism of skinner

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too much emphasis on the single type of learning and too little emphasis on cognitive processes such as attention, memory and reflection in learning

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social cognitive theory

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claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning behavior and development : humans have more sophisticated cognitive capabilities

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observational learning

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learning just by watching other people : bobo doll

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vicarious reinforcement

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individuals become more or less likely to perform a behavior based on the consequences experienced by the model they observe

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self-efficacy

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the belief that pone can effectively produce desired outcomes in a particular area of life

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reciprocal determinism

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human development occurs through a continuous reciprocal interaction among the person, his or her behavior and his and her environment . the environments shaped by humans then influence biological evolution by influencing which traits increase the odds of survival

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learning theorists do not give

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a general description of the nromal course of human development bc they insist that there is no such description to give . instead: rich amount of mechanisms thru which behavior can change using principles of leanring that are universal and help to understand how each individual changes with age in unique ways

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Piaget's view

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viewed intelligence as a process that helps an organisms adapt to its environment

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constructivism

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children actively construct new understandings of the world based on their experiences by being curious and active explorers

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sensorimotor stage (birth to 2)

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deal with the world directly through their perceptions and actions

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preoperational stage

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capacity for symbolic thought but is not yet capable of logical problem solving

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concrete operations stage

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trial and error approaches to problem solve and to do well on problems that involve thinking about concrete objects

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formal operation stage

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able to think more abstractly and hypothetically than school age children

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sociocultural perspective

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lev vygotsky argued aainst piaget saying that cognitive development us shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out of childrens interactions with members of their culture

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information processing approach

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machine that hooks the human mind up to a computer and measures attention, memory, decision making and the like

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systems theories

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claim that changes over the life span arise from the ongoing interactions between a changing organism and a changing world

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Gottlieb

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emphasized that human development takes place in the context of our evolutionary history as a speices and arises from ongoing interactions between biological and environmental influences

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ethology

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the study of the evolved behavior of various species in their natural environments

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epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective

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development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger system

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epigenesis

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the process through which nature and nuture genes and enviroment jointly bring forth particular developmental outcomes

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Gottliebs 4 main points

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1) activity of genes 2) activity of neurons 3) organisms behavior 4 environmental influences of all kinds

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temperament

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tendencies to respond in predictable ways such as sociability and emotional reactivity that serve as building blocks for late personality

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living in the same home....

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does not seem to make children more similar in personality

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predispositions

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people do not inherit psychological disorders, they inherit predispositions to develop the disorders

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gene-environment interaction:

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how our genotypes are expressed depends on what kind of environment we experience, and how we respond to the environment depends on what kind of genes we have

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gene-environment correlations

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ways in which a person's genes and his environment or experiences are systematically interrelated : passive evocative and active

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passive gene environment correlations

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where the influences of the environment and the genes reflect the same characteristics

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evocative gene-environment correlations

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a child's genotype also evokes certain kinda of reactions from other people

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active gene-environment correlations

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childrens genotypes influence the kinds of environments they seek: extrovert vs introvert