Psyc 104 Memory

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Memory?

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the processes involved in retaining,retrieving, and using information about stimuli,images, events, ideas, and skills after the originalinformation is no longer present

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information processing approach?

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o 1. Encoding: translating information into a neural codeso that it can be stored for later useo 2. Storage: the process by which information isretained over time

o 3. Retrieval: pulling information back out of your mindfor use

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3 component model?

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Memory has three components:

o 1) sensory memory

o 2) short-term/working-memory (STM/WM)

o 3) long-term memory (LTM)

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Sensory Memory?

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briefly holds sensory information

Has sensory registers

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2 types of sensory registers?

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Iconic store: holds visual information ( Lasts fractions of a second )

o Echoic store: holds auditory information ( Lasts about 2-sec)

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Sperling, 1960

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Measuring capacity and duration of iconic sensoryregister

-Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen

-Participants asked to report as many as possible

-whole report method

-partial report method

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Short-term Memory

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o Temporarily stores and processes a limited amount ofinformation in consciousness.

o Limited capacity (7 plus or minus 2 “bits”)

o Limited duration (20-sec or so without a control process)

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Brown/ Peterson + Peterson

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independentlydemonstrated that material held in memory for lessthan a minute is frequently forgotten

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four ways information is storedin STM/WM?

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o Visually (via images)

o Phonologically (via sounds)

o Semantically (via meaning)

o Action (via motor patterns)

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acoustic confusions?

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Errors can result if you try to store too muchinformation in one system too quickly.

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How to increase STM capacity?

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Increasing capacityo Chunking

- Group units into larger “bits”

Increasing duration:

o Use control processes

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Types of control processes?

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Extending duration:

Maintenance rehearsal - simple repetition

Elaborative reheasal - focus on meaning - more effective

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Working Memory (WM)?

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temporary storage andmanipulation of information for complex tasks such ascomprehension, learning, and reasoning

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How does STM and WTM differ?

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-STM is a single component; WM consists of multipleparts

-STM is mainly concerned with storing information; WMis concerned with manipulating information

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WTM 4 COMPONENTS?

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¤The phonological loop

¤ The visuospatial sketch pad

¤ The episodic buffer

¤ The central executive

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Long-term Memory (LTM)?

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“Archive” of information aboutpast events and knowledgelearned

o Works closely with workingmemory

o Large capacityo Very long duration

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Anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia?

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Anterograde amnesia: loss of ability to assimilate andretain new knowledge

Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events thathave happened in the past

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Importance of LTM?

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Alzheimer’s Diseaseo Severe retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Infantile Amnesia

o Memory loss for early childhood experiences

o Typically for events before ages 3-4

o Causes: immature brain, encoding failures

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Serial position effect?

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Refers to the U-shaped relationship between a word’sposition in a list, and its probability of recall

oPrimacy Effect

o Recency Effect

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Types of Long-Term Memory?

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Declarative -

Episodic-personal experiences(episodes of your life)

Semantic-general factual knowledge

Procedural-

-non declarative memory

-reflected in skills & actions

-some classically conditioned reponses

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Episodic vs Semantic memory?

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Episodic memory involves mental time travel

Semantic memory does not

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procedural memory?

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skill memory; memory for doing things that usuallyrequire action

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Encoding?

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effortful processing - intentional and conscious (studying for this course)

automatic processing - unintentional and requiring minimal attention

(recalling what you did yesterday)

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Encoding: exposure and retrieval

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maintenence: repitition of info (not optimal)

elaborative:

Focuses on information’s meaning

• Organizing

• Understanding

• Applying to one’s life

• Relating to already learned concepts

• Using imagery

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Mnemonics?

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Mental strategies designed to improveyour memory

oSimple strategies

o Visual imagery based strategies

o Semantic strategies

o Complex strategies

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types of mnemonics?

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Simple: chunking/hiearchy technique

semantic: first letter technique

visual based: bizzare imagry/interactive imagery

complex:methos of loci

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Retrieval?

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process of transferring information from LTM back into working memory (consciousness)

Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve

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Flashbulb memory?

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refers to your memory for thecircumstances in which you first learned about avery surprising and emotionally arousing event.

conlcusion?Shows that enhanced emotional reaction to someevent does not guarantee better retrieval of thatinformation

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matching conditions?

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Retrieval can be increased by matching theconditions at retrieval to the conditions that existedat encoding

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3 ways to achieve matching?

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Encoding Specificity

o State-Dependent Learning

o Transfer-Appropriate Processing

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State dependent learning?

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Learning is associated with a particular internalstate.

o If you study when you are drunk, you should probablywrite the test drunk

Non-drug examples as well:Mood, level of tiredness, physical fatigue, etc.

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Transfer-Appropriate Processing?

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o Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task atencoding matches the type of task at retrieval

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Ebbinghas (1885)?

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Read lists of nonsense syllables aloud many times todetermine the number of repetitions necessary torepeat each list without errors.

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Savings method?

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g

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Why do we forget?

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Decay of memory trace - long term physical trace in nervous system fades away over time and with disuse

Interference Theory-• Information forgotten because other items inLTM impair ability to retrieve it

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2 types of interference theory?

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Proactive interference - past material interferes with recall of newer material

Retroactive interference - new info interferes with ability to recall older info

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TOT state?

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tip of tongue state, on verge of remembering but cant recall

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Motivated forgetting ?

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concious or unconcious processes.

e.g. repression of anxiety arousing memories.

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controversial forgetting?

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difficult to verify

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Constructive Nature of Memory?

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What people report as memories are constructed bythe person based on what actually happened, plusadditional factors such as the person’s knowledge,experiences, and expectations

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Schema?

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consists of your general knowledge orexpectation, which is distilled from your pastexperiences with someone or something else

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Source monitoring?

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trying to identify the origin of aparticular memory

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Source monitoring errors?

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You make a mistake that Source A provided you with some information, when in fact source B actually provided it.

“Wishful thinking bias” sometimes leads people tomake source monitoring errors

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Reality Monitoring?

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you try to identify whether anevent really occurred, or whether you actuallyimagined it.

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Reality-monitoring error?

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: You think you did something but in actuality you did not

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Misinformation Effect:

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o Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later

MPI (misleading ost event info)

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The power of suggestion?

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Loftus & palmer- demonstrated that MPI (misleading post event info) can alter what characteristics of a situation people recall after an event

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Eyewitness testimony?

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: Testimony by an eyewitness to a crime about what he or she saw during the commission of the crime.

one of most convincing types of evidence to a jury.

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2 reasons why eye witness testimony can be inaccurate?

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mistaken identity

constructive nature of memory

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§ Suggestive questioning?

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o “Did you see the white car”? - Misinformation effect

o “Which one of these men did it”? - Implies perpetrator is in the lineup § Confirming feedback

o Wells & Bradfield (1998) } Post-identification feedback effect

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Post-event questioning?

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Confidence in one’s memories may be increased bypost-event questioning

-May make memories easier to retrieve