Psy1101C: Chapter One

Front 1

Define intuition.

Back 1

An effortless, immediate, autonomic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Front 2

Define hindsight bias.

Back 2

The tendency to believe, after earning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Front 3

The hindsight bias is also called the...

Back 3

I-Knew-It-All-Along phenomenon.

Front 4

In a study by Philip Tetlock, it was determined that predictions made with (blank) confidence were correct less than (blank) of the time.

Back 4

1. 80%.

2. 40%.

Front 5

What three aspects often lead us to overestimate our intuition?

Back 5

1. Hindsight bias.

2. Overconfidence.

3. Tendency to perceive patterns in random events.

Front 6

Psychologists approach the world of behaviour with a (blank). What are the two questions that they persistently ask?

Back 6

1. Curious skepticism.

2. What do you mean?

3. How do you know?

Front 7

Define humility.

Back 7

An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives.

Front 8

A scientific attitude requires...

Back 8

1. Curiosity.

2. Skepticism.

3. Humility.

Front 9

Define critical thinking.

Back 9

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Front 10

Define theory.

Back 10

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours and events.

Front 11

Define hypothesis.

Back 11

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Front 12

Define operational definition.

Back 12

A carefully-worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Front 13

Give an example of an operational definition.

Back 13

In a study about human intelligence, intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Front 14

Define replication.

Back 14

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Front 15

Define epistemology.

Back 15

The methods of obtaining scientific knowledge.

Front 16

What are the three sub-categories of epistemology?

Back 16

1. Divine insight.

2. Pure logic and thought.

3. Scientific manipulation.

Front 17

Explain divine insight.

Back 17

Knowledge that comes from a non-physical higher assistant i.e. God that cannot be wrong, according to the religion in question.

Front 18

Explain pure logic and thought.

Back 18

The human way of gaining knowledge, logic and thought derives from Artistotle's philosophies and involves the use of mathematics, chemistry and physics to dedude all knowledge possible (called absolute knowledge).

Front 19

What is scientific manipulation?

Back 19

Knowledge acquired through experimental manipulation.

Front 20

What are the three big unanswerable research questions?

Back 20

1. Stability versus change (unchangeable versus changeable).

2. Rationality versus irrationality (conscious reasoning versus unconscious).

3. Nature versus nurture (genetic versus environment).

Front 21

Materialistics are by nature (blank) who respect the lays of physical universe. Name these three laws.

Back 21

1. Atheists.

2. It must exist somewhere in space.

3. It must exist somewhere in time.

4. It must exist somewhere in quantity.

Front 22

What are some aspects contemplated by idealists? What is the opinion of materialists as it pertains to these aspects?

Back 22

1. Love, hate, liberty, free will, the "mind", consciousness, unconsciousness.

2. To be studied scientifically, these aspects must follow the laws of the universe.

Front 23

Theories lead to (blank), which are then either confirmed, rejected or (blank) through (blank).

Back 23

1. Hypotheses.

2. Revised.

3. Research and observations.

Front 24

Theories or pre-concieved notions have the ability to (blank) our observations.

Back 24

Bias.

Front 25

What three things does a good theory do?

Back 25

1. Organizes a range of self-reports and observations.

2. Implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or derive practical applications.

3. Stimulates further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know.

Front 26

What are the three research methods?

Back 26

1. Descriptive.

2. Correlational.

3. Experimental.

Front 27

Define descriptive methods.

Back 27

Descriptions of behaviour, often through case studies, surveys or naturalistic observations.

Front 28

Define correlational methods.

Back 28

Association of different factors, usually through scatterplots and/or regression charts.

Front 29

Define experimental methods.

Back 29

Manipulation of factors to discover their effects.

Front 30

What are the eight steps of the scientific process?

Back 30

1. Observe.

2. Theorize.

3. Definition of variables.

4. Measurement and quantification of variables.

5. Study design.

6. Trial.

7. Result analysis.

8. Interpretation.

Front 31

Operational variables, or variables of interest, are separated into two categories. Name them.

Back 31

1. Independent variables (that which is manipulated).

2. Dependent variables (that which is measured).

Front 32

Define case study.

Back 32

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Front 33

Define naturalistic observation.

Back 33

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Front 34

In a thorough hypothesis, suggestive predictions are provided that both (blank) and (blank) the theory.

Back 34

1. Support.

2. Discount.

Front 35

The measure of central tendency is used in result interpretation. What are the four key descriptors used?

Back 35

1. Normal distribution.

2. Mode, median and mean.

3. Standard deviation.

4. Range.

Front 36

Why is the mean not always used? What is used instead?

Back 36

1. Outliers and significantly higher or lower values can skew results.

2. Median.

Front 37

The plural of anecdote is not...

Back 37

Evidence.

Front 38

Define correlation.

Back 38

A statistical measure of the extent of a relationship between two variables.

Front 39

Correlation does not prove...

Back 39

Causality.

Front 40

If a set of data has a +1.0 correlation, it is a (blank) association. If a set of data has a -1.0 correlation it is a (blank). If a set of data has a 0.0 correlation, the two variables are (blank).

Back 40

1. Positive linear.

2. Negative inverse.

3. Not associated.

Front 41

What are the two sources of variance?

Back 41

1. Explained variables (manipulated by the researcher).

2. Lurking or confounding variables.

Front 42

Explained variables is to (blank) as confounding variables is to (blank).

Back 42

1. Knowledge.

2. Ignorance.

Front 43

Why can we not explain differences within a group?

Back 43

There is variance within individuals within groups; it is thus too complex.

Front 44

What is another unexplained variance that can account for misinterpretation of data?

Back 44

Errors in scribing data, interpreting data, design study, etc.

Front 45

What is the wording effect? Why is it important in surveys?

Back 45

1. Surveys must be worded or interpreted in such a way as to obtain unbiased results. The wording effect occurs when a question may be answered in more than one way depending on how it is asked (vocabulary, connotation, etc.).

2. Results may vary depending on how a question or phrase is worded.

Front 46

It is better to have a (blank) sample than a (blank) sample.

Back 46

1. Small and representative.

2. Large and unrepresentative.

Front 47

In random sampling, every...

Back 47

Individual in the entire group (or population) has an equal chance of participating.

Front 48

Define population.

Back 48

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Front 49

Define random sample.

Back 49

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Front 50

Define correlation.

Back 50

A measure of the extend to which two factors variy together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Front 51

Define correlation coefficient.

Back 51

A statistical index of the relaitonship between two things (from -1.0 to 1.0).

Front 52

What is a scatterplot?

Back 52

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Front 53

Define regression towards the mean.

Back 53

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average.

Front 54

Extraordinary events are usually followed by ordinary events. What concept does this describe?

Back 54

Regression towards the mean.

Front 55

What is illusory correlation?

Back 55

Correlation assumed from personal experience or bias, such as dreams or beliefs.

Front 56

What is the decline effect?

Back 56

When retested, the extraordinary event - such as ESP - become more ordinary and/or fail outright.

Front 57

Define experiment. Which process attempts to control relevant factors?

Back 57

1. A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process.

2. Random assignment.

Front 58

Define experimental group.

Back 58

In an experiment, this group is exposed to the treatment (independent variable).

Front 59

Define control group.

Back 59

In an experiment, this group is not exposed to the treatment (independent variable).

Front 60

What purpose do experimental and control groups serve?

Back 60

Results are contrasted between these two groups in order to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment.

Front 61

Define random assignment.

Back 61

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups.

Front 62

What are the three types of variables to account for in an experiment?

Back 62

1. Independent.

2. Dependent.

3. Confounding.

Front 63

What is a blind study?

Back 63

The participants do not know if they are getting the treatment or a placebo, but the researches know.

Front 64

Explain a double-blind procedure.

Back 64

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Front 65

What is a placebo?

Back 65

Experimetal results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by an administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Front 66

Double-blind procedures are typically used in which kind of studies?

Back 66

Drug-evaluation studies.

Front 67

Unlike correlational studies, which...

Experiments...

Back 67

1. Uncover naturally-occurring relationships.
2. Manipulate a factor to determine its effect.

Front 68

In one study done in Belarus, it was determined that children who were breastfed had on average a (blank) increase on aptitude tests.

Back 68

Six point.

Front 69

In a British study, it was determined that infants who were breastfed scored (blank) than infants who were not by age eight.

Back 69

Significantly higher on intelligence tests.

Front 70

Define logical positivism.

Back 70

The belief that every scientific theory must be potentially falsifiable, that it is not possible to prove that something does not exist, and that all theories are false until proven otherwise.

Front 71

In logical positivism, scientists and researchers always...

Back 71

Assume the negative.

Front 72

Define carthasis.

Back 72

The idea that through experience and exposure, it is possible to decrease unconscious "driving" urges, such as violence.

Front 73

Psychological science focuses less on... than on... that help explain many behaviours.

Back 73

1. Particular behaviours.

2. Seeking general principles.

Front 74

What information must be presented to a participant in order for research to be ethical?

Back 74

1. Informed consent - definition of the study, what will occur, what is expected of him/her.

2. Anonymity clause.

3. Confidentiality clause.

4. Explanation of risks and harms to the participant.

Front 75

When is it acceptable to use animals in research?

Back 75

Only when there is some benefit to the world as a whole.

Front 76

What is the phylogenetic scale?

Back 76

A scale that ranks animals in such a way as to be used by researchers; if possible, researchers will use the animal that is the lowest on the scale if it is determined that that will satisfy the requirements of the study.

Front 77

Ethically, the overall use of animals should be...

Back 77

Minimized.

Front 78

Define informed consent.

Back 78

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate or not.

Front 79

Define debriefing.

Back 79

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Front 80

Gallup surveys in Canada and the United States have indicated that (blank) of citizens believe that animal testing is justified, while additional studies in Britain have indicated that only (blank) of respondents agreed with it.

Back 80

1. 60%.

2. 37%.

Front 81

To be statistically significant in psychology, correlation must equal or exceed...

Back 81

0.50 (or, inversely -0.50).

Front 82

How is statistical significance (F) calculated?

Back 82

F = Explained variance is divided by the unexplained variance.

Front 83

In calculating statistical significance, it is best that the explained variance is... and the unexplained variance is...

Back 83

1. Large.

2. As close to zero as possible.

Front 84

In proving statistical significance, it is important that the statistician also indicate...

Back 84

The probability of finding a difference this large by chance alone.

Front 85

Which two researchers were involved in a study that assisted in indicating internalized anti-Black prejudice in children, which in turn supported the desegregation of schools in 1954?

Back 85

Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark.

Front 86

The word choice - which contributes to the wording effect - reflect our (blank) and our (blank) towards different characteristics, traits, ideas, practises, etc.

Back 86

1. Attitudes.

2. Values.

Front 87

If a study has big, rounded and undocumented numbers, it is important to...

Back 87

Doubt the procedure or interpretation of results.

Front 88

What are two issues in study designs and interpretation that cannot always be accounted for?

Back 88

1. Generalizations.

2. Exceptions to the rule.

Front 89

In random sampling, it is not possible to force people to volunteer, as...

Back 89

It would not be possible to know whether these forced-participants are actually "randomized" compared to those who do not participate.

Front 90

It is important to always note which (blank) is used in a study.

Back 90

Measure of central tendency (mean, median, mode).

Front 91

When is an observed difference reliable?

Back 91

1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.

2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable.

3. More cases are better than fewer.

Front 92

... statistics summarize data, while... statistics determine if data can be generalized to other populations.

Back 92

1. Descriptive.

2. Inferential.

Front 93

What are some design flaws in experimental-control group studies?

Back 93

1. Sample size is often small.

2. Generalization.

3. Experiment carried out in a laboratory (is it representative of the "real world"?).

Front 94

How do researchers combat the flaws of an experimental-control group study?

Back 94

Replication.

Front 95

What is a quasi-experiment? What are the limitations and controversies of quasi-experiments?

Back 95

1. The comparing of one group, such as males, to another group, such as females.

2. Experimental manipulation cannot be carried out (ethical limitations).

3. They assume that the differences are caused by the independent variable.

4. Controversial.

Front 96

What is the "carry over" effect?

Back 96

Participants begin to accomodate the study or "learn how it works", thus affecting results.