Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Two main causes of cancer:
|
1) Genetics: Certain genetic traits can make you more susceptible to mutations, causing cancer
2) Environmental Factors: Being exposed to environmental chemicals, the way you diet, lifestyle, infections, etc. |
|
|
True or False - Cancer is a disease
|
False
Cancer is a broad group of diseases involving unregulated cell growth |
|
|
Incidence:
|
The number of new cases of cancer diagnosed per year
|
|
|
The leading cause of cancer is _______ cancer
|
Lung
|
|
|
Ames Test:
|
A Low cost/short-term test for carcinogens that uses mutant bacteria that regain the ability to grow when they are exposed to mutagenic chemicals.
|
|
|
Anticancer drugs work by:
|
Killing or slowing the growth of rapidly growing cells.
|
|
|
Three main steps of Carcinogenisis:
|
1) Initiation: When the genetic material is altered
2) Promotion: The simulation of rapid growth 3) Progression: An increase in the malignancy of the cancer |
|
|
Drug Efflux:
|
A mechanism of resistance of a cell. This is when the drug is pumped out of the cell through transporters.
|
|
|
Anticancer Alkylating agents:
|
Drugs that bind to DNA and interfere with DNA replication. Example: Cisplatin
|
|
|
Antimetabolites:
|
Inhibit the use of a chemical that is part of normal metabolism. They halt cell growth and division. Folic acid is converted into tetrahydrofolic acid in our body but antimetabolites compete with the enzyme to create tetrahydrofolic acid, thus preventing cell growth. Example: Methotrexate
|
|
|
Mitotic inhibitors:
|
Drugs that affect microtubule function and the formation of the mitotic spindle, preventing cell division. Examples: Vinca alkaloids (vincristine) and Taxanes (paclitaxel (Taxol))
|
|
|
Topoisomerase inhibitors:
|
Drugs that interfere with enzymes responsible for maintaining proper supercoiling of DNA during DNA replication. They introduce DNA strand breaks that lead to cell death.
|
|
|
Antitumour Antibiotics:
|
Natural products produced from Streptomyces bacteria. Various mechanisms including binding to DNA and inhibition of topoisomerases. Examples: Doxorubicin, Bleomycin, Mitomycin
|
|
|
Hormones and hormone antagonists:
|
Drugs used to treat hormone sensitive tumours by suppressing cell proliferation. Examples: Anti-estrogens (tamoxifen), Aromatase (estrogenic enzymes) inhibitors (letrozole) and Anti-androgens (flutamide)
|
|
|
Growth factor receptor inhibitors:
|
Antibodies that inhibit cellular growth, proliferation, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Examples: Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor (Gefitnib) and Angiogensis inhibitor (Bevacizumab).
|
|
|
Blood Pressure:
|
The force that circulating blood exerts on the walls of arteries. The heart pumps out blood into different tissues through the arteries. Circulating blood carries nutrients and oxygen to the tissues, and waste and CO2 back to the heart.
|
|
|
Normal blood Pressure:
|
Systolic Blood Pressure/Diastolic Blood Pressure
120 / 80 mmHg |
|
|
Factors that control blood pressure:
|
• Blood Volume
• Peripheral Resistance • Sympathetic Nervous System • Renin-Angiotensin System |
|
|
Renin
|
An enzyme also known as an angiotensinogenase that that mediates blood volume
|
|
|
How does angiotensin II work?
|
1) Causing vasoconstriction, increasing the blood pressure.
2) Releasing the hormone aldosterone stimulates the proximal tubules in the kidney to reabsorb sodium ions, again increasing the blood pressure. 3) Releasing a hormone called ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) which causes water retention and an increase in blood pressure. |
|
|
What is hypertension and it's common causes?
|
High blood pressure - It can be caused by age, sex, obesity, physical activity, smoking and genetics
|
|
|
True or False: Hypertension is asymptomatic
|
True
|
|
|
Two ways to treat hypertension through lifestyle adjustments:
|
Dietary Management: Reduce the body way, go on a low salt/low fat diet and receive adequate potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Change Habits: Reduce alcohol consumption, stop smoking, exercise and manage stress. |
|
|
Diuretics:
|
Drugs that act on the kidney to remove excess salt and water from the body.
|
|
|
Thiazide diuretics (Hydrochlorothiazide):
|
The most common drugs used for hypertension. They act by promoting the excretion of water and salt, lowering the blood volume. Adverse effects include low potassium, high sugar, high cholesterol, high calcium and high uric acid.
|
|
|
Calcium Channel Blockers:
|
Drugs that prevent Calcium from entering the cell which slows the muscle contraction of the heart, preventing vasoconstriction. Example: Nifedipine.
|
|
|
Coronary Artery Disease:
|
The narrowing or blocking of coronary arteries. It lowers blood flow and oxygen supply to the heart.
|
|
|
Angina Pectoris:
|
A sudden onset of chest pain due to myocardial ischemia (the lowering of blood supply to the heart). It can be caused by exertion, stress, heavy meals and cold weather. It can be relieved through rest and nitrates.
|
|
|
Organic Nitrates:
|
Compounds that are acted upon by a reductase enzyme that converts the nitrates to nitric oxide. The drug is not active until it is nitric oxide. It causes relaxation of smooth muscles, which causes vasodilation to treat angina.
|
|
|
Heart Failure:
|
The inability of the heart to pump sufficient quantities of blood to meet the requirements of the body tissues.
|
|
|
Digitalis:
|
Drugs derived from plants that are prescribed for congestive heart failure. They work by decreasing the effectiveness of the sodium-potassium pump, thus increasing the amount of Na+ in the cell. This decreases Na+ / Ca2+ exchange, which increases the amount of Ca2+ in the cell, which overall improves the contractility of the heart.
|
|
|
Acute Toxicity:
|
Usually more obvious and immediate toxic effects. Example: Aflatoxin B1 is a common food contaminant that causes acute symptoms like liver pain while is can also cause chronic effects like liver cancer.
|
|
|
Anthropogenic:
|
Of, relating to, or resulting from the influence of human beings on nature.
|
|
|
Three main human causes of air pollutants:
|
1) Combustion of fossil fuels. The burning of coal and oil release sulfur, sulfur oxides and cause acid rain.
2) Automobile Exhaust: Smoke that contains lead particles, CO, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. 3) Industrial Processes: Acids, solvents, metals, etc. |
|
|
Bisphenol A (BPA):
|
Polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins, found in Water bottles, baby bottles, tableware, food storage containers and the lining of metal-based cans. It is often injested because BPA can leach from containers into food. It causes estrogen-like effects but is generally safe at low doses.
|
|
|
Atherosclerosis:
|
The accumulation of fatty plaques (atheroma) on the inside wall of arteries. It is the most common cause of coronary artery disease. It is caused by hyperlipidemia, an elevated lipid concentration in the blood.
|
|
|
Three main plasma lipids:
|
1) Cholesterol: A white waxy material composed of viatamin D, bile, cell membrane and steroid hormones.
2) Triglycerides: The most abundant type of lipids in our body. They are composed of a glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid chains. 3) Phospholipids: Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins that are soluble. |
|
|
Five classifications of lipoproteins:
|
1) Chylomicrons: The largest lipoproteins, formed in the intestine
2) Very Low Density Lipoproteins: Formed in the liver 3) Intermediate Density Lipoproteins: A temporary type of lipid. 4) Low Density Lipoproteins: Derived from the intermediate density lipoproteins. They carry cholesterol to tissues. 5) High Density Lipoproteins: Carry cholesterol away from the arteries to the liver. |
|
|
Hyperlipoproteinemia:
|
A high concentration of lipids in the blood. There are two types:
• Primary: Inherited from your genetics • Secondary: Acquired through bad diet or other metabolic diseases. |
|
|
Bile Acid Sequestrant Resins:
|
Resins that bind bile acids to prevent their reabsorption from the intestine. This decreased the level of cholesterol in the system.
|
|
|
Fibrates:
|
Drugs that break down very low density lipoproteins and decrease the secretion of triglycerides.
|
|
|
Nicotinic Acid:
|
Also known as Niacin or Vitamin B3. It acts on the liver and inhibits production of very low density lipoproteins and produces more high density lipoproteins.
|
|
|
HMG CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins):
|
Drugs that lower the enzyme Coenzyme A reductase in the liver which in turn lowers cholesterol. This class of drug is efficient against coronary artery disease. It can have adverse effects such as liver dysfunction and myalgia (muscle pain).
|
|
|
Eszetimibe:
|
Drugs that prevent the absorption of dietary cholesterol in the intestine. This lowers cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins in the blood.
|
|
|
Over the counter drugs:
|
Drugs that can be purchased without a prescription. Usually limited toxicity and self-limiting symptom.
|
|
|
Three functions of Acetylsalicylic Acid (Aspirin):
|
1) Analgesic: For mild to moderate pain relief
2) Antipyretic: For fever reduction 3) Anti-inflammatory: To reduce inflammation/swelling |
|
|
Mechanism of Action of Aspirin:
|
Aspirin inhibits the enzymes cyclo-oxygenase I and II that produce prostaglandins, which produce inflammation, pain and fever. Prostaglandins sensitize nerve endings to pain. Thus, these agents reduce pain by reducing the amount of prostaglandins at the nerve.
|
|
|
Acetaminophen:
|
A drug similar to aspirin in the way it works, but is not an anti-inflammatory. It is possible to overdose on acetaminophen.
|
|
|
Ibuprofen:
|
Similar to aspirin but it is a more effective anti-inflammatory. It is a good choice for any pain that has an inflammatory component.
|
|
|
Naproxen:
|
An anti-inflammatory and pain relieving drug.
|
|
|
Cold Preparations:
|
Cold preps contain anticongestants which are alpha receptor agonists that cause vasoconstriction and hence decongestion. Antihistamines are also often added to a cold prep. It is not a cure but is made to alleviate symptoms.
|
|
|
Antitussive:
|
A cough suppressant that depresses the cough center in the CNS. It is effective in sufficient doses.
|
|
|
Analgesics:
|
Any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain.
|
|
|
Non-Systemic Antacids:
|
Antacids that are not absorbed, but stay in the digestive tract to neutralize stomach acid.
|
|
|
St John’s Wort:
|
A species of flowering plant in the genus Hypericum, used as an anti-depressant. High concentrations inhibit uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine and dopamine in CNS – As do other antidepressants.
|
|
|
Food Additive:
|
A substance added to food to improve appearance, texture, and storage of food. There are intentional additives (Flavours, colours, preservatives, texture agents) and unintentional additives (Fertilizers, pesticides, heavy metals, rodent hairs)
|
|
|
Antioxidants:
|
Water soluble agents that prevent oxidation (browning) of carbohydrates in food. They are not toxic.
|
|
|
Sequestrants:
|
Agents added to bind metals, because metals can enhance oxidation of fats and lead to rancidity.
|
|
|
Vitamin:
|
A substance that is not made in the body but is required for maintenance of normal function. It must be provided from external sources.
|
|
|
True or False: Vitamins found in food are considered a drug
|
False. When vitamins are taken as a tablet in pure form they are considered drugs but in food, they are not.
|
|
|
Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI):
|
The recommended intake of vitamins in a specific population.
|
|
|
Vitamin C:
|
Required for collagen and intercellular ground substance. Vitamin C works well to prevent scurvy. It is proven to help prevent the common cold. Excess vitamin C can cause diarrhea, kidney stones or scurvy if stopped suddenly.
|
|
|
Folate:
|
A B-class vitamin that helps prevent neural tubes defects during pregnancy and delivery.
|
|
|
Actions of Vitamin D:
|
–Increases the absorption of calcium and phosphate from intestine
–Maintains blood calcium levels, reabsorbing it from kidney and some from bone –Vitamin D supplementation is recommended for those at risk of osteoporosis |
|
|
Vitamin E:
|
A vitamin that is required for normal reproduction. Humans are rarely vitamin E deficient because if you eat even a decent daily diet, you are getting more than enough vitamin E.
|
|
|
Amphetamine:
|
A potent central nervous system stimulant that improves performance. They can increase heart rate and blood pressure which can be serious or fatal.
|
|
|
Anabolic Steroids:
|
Steroids that are used in football, weight lifting, wrestling and running. They increase strength. They were designed originally to reduce the loss of muscle mass from diseases.
|
|
|
Blood Doping:
|
When an athletes own blood is collected and infused the day before the competition to increase oxygen carrying capacity.
|
|
|
Creatine:
|
A natural amino acid derivative that is synthesized in the body and found in diet. It shows a modest improvement in performance for brief high intensity activities.
|
|
|
How do anabolic steroids work?
|
They prevent cortisone from being produced, which blocks the anti-catabolic effect that prevents us to work any harder when working out.
|
|
|
Antibiotic:
|
A substance produced by a microorganism that suppresses the growth of other organisms. Synthetic compounds would be called antimicrobial.
|
|
|
Bacteriostatic Agent:
|
A chemical agent made to prevent the multiplication of an organism without killing it.
|
|
|
Bactericidal Agent:
|
A chemical agent made to kill the bacteria.
|
|
|
Penicillin:
|
A group on antibiotics made from penicillium fungi. They work because bacteria have rigid cell walls while mammalian cells do not. Penicillin inhibits an enzyme involved in cell wall synthesis so bacteria are formed without cell walls and cannot maintain the pressure and die.
|
|
|
Cannabis:
|
A CNS depressing drug that acts as a euphoriant and hallucinogen. Legally it is a narcotic drug that is illegal without a prescription.
|
|
|
How does cannabis work?
|
Cannabis binds to the CB1 receptors in the CNS, causing disinhibition of dopaminergic neurons.
This inhibit GABA and glutamate release and activates the reward system (dopamine is increased as GABA release is inhibited, causing happy feelings) |
|
|
True or False: Cannabis is most efficiently absorbed through oral absorption.
|
False. Cannabis is most efficiently absorbed through the lungs.
|
|
|
True or False: 50-60% of all drugs are derived from plants.
|
False. 20-25% of drugs are herbal.
|
|
|
Herbal medicines:
|
Plant products sold as medicines with no approval.
|
|
|
Allopathic phytopharmaceuticals:
|
Compounds or drugs obtained from plants that have full pharmacological approval.
|
|
|
Homeopathy:
|
A theory of contemporary medicine according to which a substance that causes the symptoms of a disease in healthy people will cure similar symptoms in sick people. It also states that the lower the concentration of the drug, the greater the effect.
|
|
|
True or False: Herbal medicines are never toxic.
|
False. Herbal medicines can be toxic at certain doses.
|
|
|
Valerian:
|
A sedative and hypnotic drug that contains valepotriates, which are shown to have CNS depressant activity with less adverse effects than diazepam.
|
|
|
Echinacea:
|
Claimed to be an antibiotic and immune stimulant though studies are very conflicting. It's efficacy is questionable because it alters immune cells but there is no proof that it alters the outcome of a common cold.
|
|
|
Ginseng:
|
An allopathic drug that claims to enhance memory, learning, productivity and physical stamina, though there is no proof.
|
|
|
Protease inhibitors:
|
A class of antiviral drugs that are used to treat HIV and hepatitis.
|
|
|
Antivirals:
|
Drugs used for treating viruses. It is one area of chemotherapy where more drugs are needed.
|
|
|
Anti-fungal Drugs:
|
Drugs that prevent fungus.
|
|
|
Aminoglycosides:
|
Antibiotics that are effective against certain kinds of bacteria. The most common is Gentamicin which inhibits protein synthesis in G-strand organisms. It
causes ototoxicity – hearing loss, loss of balance and renal damage |
|
|
Streptomycin:
|
A drug obtained from the soil that was once widely used to treat tuberculosis but due to toxicity is now reserved as a second line drug.
|
|
|
Drug:
|
Any substance received by a biological system that is not from nutritive purposes. A drug can include chemical, biological or herbal substances.
|
|
|
Symptoms of Ergot Poisoning:
|
Burning limbs, Constriction of Blood Vessels, Hallucinations and Convulsions and Abortion.
|
|
|
Ergonovine:
|
A drug that was used to speed up baby delivery, but was deemed too dangerous and is no longer used.
|
|
|
What drug lead to the concept that mental illness could be treated with drugs?
|
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
|
|
|
Sulfonamides:
|
The basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group
|
|
|
Agonist:
|
A chemical that binds to some receptor of a cell and triggers a response by that cell. Agonists often mimic the action of a naturally occurring substance. (A Stimulant Drug)
|
|
|
Antagonist:
|
A type of drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor but blocks or dampens agonist-mediated responses. In pharmacology antagonists have affinity but no efficacy for their cognate receptors. (An Inhibitor Drug)
|
|
|
Main Techniques of Drug Advertising:
|
Before/After shots, Catching Attention, Fear, Easy solution to a problem and the use of authorities to endorse products
|
|
|
Phases of Clinical Drug Trials:
|
- Phase I: Researchers test a new drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
- Phase II: The drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety. - Phase III: The drug or treatment is given to large groups of people to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug or treatment to be used safely. - Phase IV: (Post marketing surveillance) Studies are done after the drug or treatment has been marketed to gather information on the drug's effect in various populations and any side effects associated with long-term use. |
|
|
Placebo:
|
A simulated or otherwise medically ineffectual treatment for a disease or other medical condition intended to deceive the recipient. Sometimes patients given a placebo treatment will have a perceived or actual improvement in a medical condition, a phenomenon commonly called the placebo effect.
|
|
|
Design of a Phase 3 Trial:
|
1) Study Population: How many people do you need to detect a difference? What are the patient characteristics? All patients are different; can you represent all patients in a select group? Are the results generalizable to the population as a whole?
2) Comparator: Give some of the patients an equivalent drug that is already on the market, or even just sugar pills to act as the placebo effect. This is to study the actual efficacy of the drug and to be sure that it is not just the placebo effect giving results. Double Blind: Doctors and patients are not informed of whether or not they are given the clinical drug or the comparator. 3) Randomization: The allocation of patients to the different treatments should not have bias. |
|
|
Potency:
|
Refers to the amount of drug that must be given to obtain a particular response.
|
|
|
Efficacy:
|
Refers to the maximal response that can be obtained with the drug.
|
|
|
Dose response:
|
As the dose of a drug increases, so does the response from the body. The therapeutic dose of a drug must be less than the toxic dose, or else it may cause death.
|
|
|
Selective Toxicity:
|
Drugs that can harm one organism without harming some other kind. Examples are pesticides, lice treatments, bacterial infections, etc.
|
|
|
Two types of Drug Toxicity:
|
1) Acute: One short-term lethal dose of a drug
2) Chronic: Toxicity caused by long-term use of a drug |
|
|
Four ways drugs cross membranes:
|
1) Filtration via pores: Small molecules can pass through spaces between cells.
2) Passive diffusion: The membrane is lipid in nature and drugs dissolve in the lipids and move across the membrane. The drug goes from an area of high concentration to low concentration. 3) Active transport: Carrier proteins transport drugs across the membrane. This requires energy. It is important for functions within the kidney and liver. 4) Pinocytosis: The cell membrane engulfs the drug and carries it to the other side of the membrane, where it releases drug. |
|
|
Bioavailability:
|
Measures the rate and extent of the release of a drug after administration of a tablet or capsule.
|
|
|
Nicotine:
|
One of three most widely used (and abused) psychoactive drugs, the others being alcohol and caffeine. Nicotine is readily absorbed from many sites in the body including the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, oral and nasal mucosa, across the skin. Nicotine activates specific Nicotonic ACh receptors. It is distributed throughout the body and rapidly penetrates the brain and crosses the placenta.
|
|
|
Caffeine:
|
The most commonly used drug in the world. It is administered orally and is rapidly and completely absorbed. The effects of coffee are most evident 90 minutes after consumption. Coffee can freely cross the placenta and could therefore have bad effects on a baby.
|
|
|
Addiction:
|
When stopping or abruptly reducing the dose of a drug produces non-physical (mental) symptoms, or in other words, an emotional and mental preoccupation with the drug’s effects; a persistent craving for the drug.
|
|
|
Dependence:
|
The abnormal physiological state produced by repeated administration of a drug that leads to the appearance of a characteristic and specific group of symptoms when a drug is discontinued or decreased.
|
|
|
Tolerance:
|
When repeated administration of a given dose of drug has progressively less effect or in other words, the dose of a drug must be increased to obtain the same magnitude of pharmacological effect that was first achieved.
|
|
|
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI):
|
Potent blockers of the presynaptic transporter for serotonin re-uptake.
|
|
|
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCA):
|
A class of drugs with similar chemical structure that relieve symptoms of depression, anxiety and pain. They work by blocking presynaptic re-uptake transporters or norepinephrine and serotonin. An example is imipramine.
|
|
|
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD):
|
An umbrella term recently adopted to include all symptoms and diagnoses associated with prenatal exposure to alcohol. No safe level of alcohol intake during pregnancy has been established.
|
