Ob Chap 5

Front 1

motivation

Back 1

• Motivation - the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior.

Exerting particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction). One of the four essential drivers of individual behavior and performance (MARS).

Front 2

motivation is

Back 2

that which energizes, directs, and maintains behavior

Front 3

needs, drives, and employee motivation

Back 3

A. Drives (aka-primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives)


B. Needs are goal-directed forces that people experience


C. Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

D. What’s Wrong with Needs Hierarchy Models?

E. Learned Needs Theory

F. Four-Drive Theory (Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria)

Front 4

drives

Back 4

A. Drives (aka-primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives)

1. Neural states that energize individuals to CORRECT DEFICIENCIES or maintain an internal equilibrium

2. Prime movers of behavior

3. drives and emotions represent the primary sources of employee motivations

Front 5

DRIVES ARE prime movers of behavior

Back 5

a. Activate emotions
1) Puts us in a state of readiness to act
2) Emotions play a central role in motivation
3) “Motivation” and “emotion” come from Latin word movere, which means “to move”
b. Include physiological essentials, such as hunger and thirst
c. Also include non-physiological drives, for example, the drive:
1) For social interaction
2) To understand the immediate environment
3) To defend oneself against physiological and psychological harm

Front 6

needs are

Back 6

goal directed forces that people experience

1. DRIVE GENERATED EMOTIONS(conscious or nonconscious) that are directed toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances

2. Most needs are shaped by:
a. The individual’s self-concept
b. Social norms
c. Past experience
d. These personal characteristics can amplify or suppress some needs
e. They also regulate a person’s motivated goals and behavior

Front 7

maslow's needs hierarchy theory

Back 7

1) hierarchy of five basic categories
2)two additional categories not in hierarchy
3)represents drives (primary needs) because they are innate and universal

4)we are motivated simultaneously by several needs, but
5)the lowest unmet need has the strongest effect- when lower need is satisfied, next high need becomes the primary motivator, and remains so, even if never satisfied
6) exception is self actualization - as people experience self-actualization, they desire more rather than less of this need. Self-actualization, then, is a growth need because it continues to develop even when fulfilled

7. the bottom four are deficiency needs, because they become activated when unfulfilled

9. positive organizational behavior

Front 8

hierarchy of five basic categories (from lowest to highest), often presented in a triangle:

Back 8

a. Physiological – need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.
b. Safety – need for a secure and stable environment and the absence of pain, threat, or illness
c. Belongingness – need for love, affection, and interaction with other people
d. Esteem – need for self-esteem through personal achievement as well as social esteem through recognition and respect from others
e. Self-actualization – need for self-fulfillment, realization of one’s potential

Front 9

two additional categories not in the hierarchy

Back 9

a. Need to know
b. Need for beauty

Front 10

limitations of maslow's theory

Back 10

a. Limitations:
1) Lack of support for theory
2) Maslow’s needs aren’t as separate as assumed
3) People progress to different needs
4) Needs change more rapidly than Maslow stated

Front 11

contributions of maslow's theory

Back 11

1) More holistic - integrative view of needs
2) More humanistic - influence of social dynamics, not just instinct
3) More positivistic - pays attention to strengths, not just deficiencies. (People are naturally motivated to reach their potential)

Front 12

positive organizational behavior

Back 12

(a variation of positive psychology) – focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them

Front 13

what's wrong with needs hierarchy models?

Back 13

1. ERG theory (Alderfer)
a. Three need categories: existence, relatedness, and growth
b. Applies both satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression process—people shift to a lower need if a higher need is blocked
c. Better than Maslow’s (easier to cluster human needs around three rather than five categories) but still has problems…

Front 14

what's wrong with needs hierarchy models? part 2

Back 14

d. Maslow, ERG, models wrongly assume that everyone has the same needs hierarchy (i.e. universal)
e. Instead, likely that each person has a unique needs hierarchy because needs are strongly influence by self-concept, personal values, and social identity
f. Connection between values and needs suggests that:
1) A needs hierarchy is unique to each person, and
2) Can change over time, just as values change over a lifetime

Front 15

learned needs theory

Back 15

1. Drives are innate (universal)

2. Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience

3. Therefore, needs can be “learned” (i.e. strengthened or weakened through training)

4. Three learned needs (David McClelland):
need for achievement (nAch)
need for affiliation (nAff)
need for power (nPow)

5. needs can be learned (more accurately, strengthened or weakened)

Front 16

need for achievement (nAch)

Back 16

1) Values competition against a standard of excellence;
2) Want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort

Front 17

need for affiliation (nAff)

Back 17

1) Desire to seek approval from others
2) Conform to others’ wishes and expectations
3) Avoid conflict and confrontation

Front 18

need for power (nPow)

Back 18

1) Desire to exercise control over others
2) Concerned about maintain their leadership position
3) Personalized versus socialized power
a) Personalized – enjoy their power to advance personal interests
b) Socialized – desire power as a means to help others. Effective leaders have a high need for socialized rather than personalized power

Front 19

four-drive theory (paul lawrence and nitin nohria)

Back 19

drive to acquire
drive to bond
drive to learn
drive to defend

Front 20

drive to acquire

Back 20

- to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences; includes need for status and recognition; foundation of competition and basis of our need for esteem

Front 21

drive bond

Back 21

- to form social relationships; motivates people to cooperate

Front 22

drive to learn

Back 22

- to satisfy one’s curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and our environment; we experience a tension that motivates us to close information gaps

Front 23

drive to defend

Back 23

to protect ourselves physically and socially; ‘fight or flight’ response; includes defending our relationships, our acquisitions, and belief systems; always reactive i.e. triggered by threat

Front 24

features of four drives

Back 24

a. Innate and hardwired -- everyone has them
b. Independent of each other (no hierarchy of drives)
c. Complete set -- no drives are excluded from the model
d. Three of the four are “proactive” – we regularly try to fulfill them
e. Only the drive to defend is “reactive”

Front 25

how drives influence employee motivation

Back 25

a. Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming information
b. Competing drives (i.e. conflicting emotions) demand our attention, which causes us to choose a course of action based on our social norms, past experience, and personal values
c. Our conscious analysis of competing demands from the four drives generates needs that energize us to act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass

Front 26

evaluating the four-drive theory

Back 26

a. Avoids the assumption that everyone has the same needs hierarchy
b. Explains why needs vary from one person to the next
c. Is holistic (integrates several drives) and humanistic (acknowledge the role of human thought and social influences rather than just instinct)
d. Provides a much clearer understanding about the role of EI in employee motivation and behavior
e. Employees with high EI:
f. the theory is far from complete

Front 27

e. Employees with high EI:

Back 27

1) Are more sensitive to competing demands from the four drives
2) Are better able to avoid impulsive behavior from those drives
3) Can judge the best way to act to fulfill drive demands in a social context

Front 28

f. the theory (four drive) is far from complete

Back 28

1) Perhaps one or two other drives should be included
2) Social norms, personal values, and past experience probably don’t represent the full set of individual characteristics that translate emotions into goal-directed effort (e.g. personality and social identity likely play a significant role)

Front 29

8. Practical Implications of Four Drive Theory

Back 29

a. Employees continually seek fulfillment of drives, so provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, social interaction, etc
b. Keep drives in balance - avoid having conditions support one drive over others.

Front 30

keep drives in balance

Back 30

avoid having conditions support one drive over others. For example:
1) Energizing the drive to acquire without the drive to bond may create organizational politics and dysfunctional conflict
2) Change and novelty will aid the drive to learn, but too much of it will trigger the drive to defend which may result in employees becoming territorial and resistant to change

Front 31

expectancy theory of motivation

Back 31

– work effort is directed towards behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes

Front 32

expectancy theory of motivation (elements)

Back 32

A. Effort ->performance (E-to-P) expectancy

B. Performance->outcome (P-to-O) expectancy

C. Outcome valences

D. Increasing E-to-P Expectancies

E. Increasing P-to-O Expectancies

F. Increasing Outcome Valences

G. Evaluating Expectancy Theory

Front 33

A. Effort ->performance (E-to-P) expectancy

Back 33

1. Effort -- a person’s actual exertion of energy
2. Individual’s perception that his/her effort will result in a particular performance level
3. Expressed as a probability (0 to 1.0)

Front 34

B. Performance->outcome (P-to-O) expectancy

Back 34

1. Perception that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to specific outcomes
2. Expressed as a probability (0 to 1.0)

Front 35

C. Outcome valences

Back 35

1. Anticipated satisfaction/dissatisfaction toward an outcome
2. Expressed as a range of negative to positive (actual range doesn’t matter; could be -1 to +1 or -100 to +100)
3. Positive valence when the outcome is consistent with one’s values and satisfies one’s needs
4. Negative valence when the outcome opposes one’s values and inhibits need fulfillment

Front 36

D. Increasing E-to-P Expectancies

Back 36

1. Assuring employees they have competencies, role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of performance
2. Person-job matching
3. Provide role clarification and sufficient resources
4. Provide behavioral modeling and supportive feedback

Front 37

E. Increasing P-to-O Expectancies

Back 37

1. Measure performance accurately
2. Distribute more valued rewards to those with higher performance
3. Explain how rewards are linked to specific performance
4. Use examples, anecdotes, and public ceremonies to illustrate when behavior has been rewarded

Front 38

F. Increasing Outcome Valences

Back 38

1. Ensure that rewards are valued
2. Individualize rewards
3. Minimize countervalent outcomes – consequences with negative valences that reduce rather than enhance employee motivation (e.g. peer pressure to perform at the minimum standard)

Front 39

G. Evaluating Expectancy Theory

Back 39

1. Useful model that has been tested in a variety of situations and predicts motivation in different cultures
2. Ignores the central role of emotion in employee effort and behavior (although the valence element captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally)

Front 40

goal setting and feedback

Back 40

a. goal setting
b. effective goals
c. characteristics of effective feedback
d. evaluating goal setting and feedback

Front 41

goal setting

Back 41

- the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives
1. Stretches the intensity and persistence of effort
2. Gives clearer role perceptions so that effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance

Front 42

effective goals

Back 42

(maximize task effort and performance):
1. Specific – have measurable levels of change over a specific and relatively short time frame
2. Relevant – to the employee’s job and within the employee’s control
3. Challenging – raise intensity and persistence; fulfill achievement or growth needs when achieved
4. Commitment – challenging without being so difficult that employees lose motivation (E->P)
5. Participation (sometimes) – employee is involved in setting goals; increases commitment; may improve goal quality (employee has more information)
6. Feedback - information about goal achievement; redirects effort; fulfills growth needs

Front 43

characteristics of effective feedback

Back 43

(clarifies role perceptions, improves skills and knowledge, motivates and increases performance)
1. Specific – connected to the details of the goal; focuses on the task e.g. “You exceeded your sales quota by 5% this month.”
2. Relevant – relates to the individual’s behavior
3. Timely – available as soon as possible; clear association between behavior and consequences
4. Sufficiently frequent – based on contingencies of employees knowledge/experience; task cycle
5. Credible – more acceptable from trustworthy source

Front 44

evaluating goal setting and feedback

Back 44

1. Goal setting is one of the most respected theories in terms of validity and usefulness
2. Goal setting/feedback limitations:
a. Focuses employees on measurable performance, while ignoring aspects of job performance that are difficult to measure
b. When tied to pay, employees motivated to set easy goals that look difficult
c. Goal setting interferes with learning process in new, complex jobs (so don’t apply goal setting where an intense learning process is occurring)

Front 45

organizational justice

Back 45

a. distributive justice
b. procedural justice
c. equity theory
k. procedural justice (cont)

Front 46

distributive justice

Back 46

perceived fairness in outcomes we receive relative to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others

Front 47

procedural justice (definition)

Back 47

perceived fairness of the procedures used to allocate the resources as well as treatment of others throughout that exchange process

Front 48

equity theory

Back 48

1. Explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.

2. Occurs when employees compare their own outcome/input ratio to the outcome/input ratio of some other person

3. Outcome/input ratio

4. comparison other

5. equity evaluation

6. results in feelings of
7. correcting inequity feelings when underrewarded
8. evaluating equity theory

Front 49

outcome/input ratio (equity theory)

Back 49

a. Inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill, effort, reputation, performance, experience, hours worked)
b. Outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay, promotions, recognition, preferential treatment, preferred jobs)

Front 50

comparison other (equity theory)

Back 50

a. Person/people against whom we compare our ratio
b. Not easily identifiable – e.g. same job, another job, another organization
c. May collect information on several referents to form a “generalized” comparison other

Front 51

equity evaluation

Back 51

- compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other

Front 52

results in feelings of:
(equity theory)

Back 52

a. Equity – their outcome/input ratio is similar to the ratio of the comparison other
b. Underreward – believe their ratio is lower than the comparison other’s ratio
c. Overreward – believe that their ratio is higher than the comparison other’s ratio

Front 53

correcting inequity feelings when underrewarded (equity theory)

Back 53

a. Reduce your inputs
b. Increase your outcomes – ask for pay increase
c. Increase comparison other’s inputs - encourage comparison other to work more
d. Reduce comparison other’s outcomes – ask boss to stop favoring the co-worker
e. Change your perceptions of comparison other – believe coworker is doing more or not receiving as much
f. Choose another comparison other – compare yourself to someone closer to your situation
g. Leave the field – transfer to more equitable environment

Front 54

evaluating equity theory

Back 54

a. Not easy to put into practice
1) Doesn’t identify the “comparison other”
2) Doesn’t indicate which inputs or outcomes are most valuable to each employee
b. Open communication is key
c. Accounts for only some of our feelings of fairness or justice
d. Procedural justice is at least as important as distributive justice

Front 55

procedural justice (what it does)

Back 55

1. Give employees voice in the process
2. Unbiased decision maker
3. Decision based on all information
4. Existing policies consistently applied
5. Decision maker listened to all sides
6. Provide a way of appealing decisions to a higher authority
7. Treat employees with respect
8. Give employees a full explanation of decisions

Front 56

job design

Back 56

– the process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs

Front 57

job design and work efficiency

Back 57

1. job specialization
2. scientific management
3. advantages of job specialization
4. disadvantages of job specialization

Front 58

job specialization

Back 58

– the result of division of labor in which each job includes a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service
a. Improves work efficiency
b. Requires fewer physical and mental skills to accomplish the work
c. Fewer resources needed for training
d. Due to shorter work cycles, jobs are mastered quickly
e. Employees with specific aptitudes or skills can be matched more precisely to the jobs for which they are best suited

Front 59

scientific management

Back 59

– systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardizing task to achieve maximum efficiency
a. Advocated by Frederick Winslow Taylor – American industrial engineer in early 1900s
b. Advocates job specialization
c. Also emphasized person-job matching, training, goal setting, work incentives

Front 60

advantages of job specialization

Back 60

a. Less time changing activities
b. Lower training costs
c. Job mastered quickly
d. Better person-job matching

Front 61

disadvantages of job specialization

Back 61

a. Job boredom
b. Higher absenteeism/turnover
c. Lower work quality
d. Lower motivation

Front 62

job design and work motivation

Back 62

1. Job Characteristics Model – relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties.

2. Core Job Characteristics

3. critical psychological states

4. individual differences - contingenies

Front 63

core job characteristics

Back 63

skill variety
task identity
task significance
autonomy
job feedback

Front 64

skill variety

Back 64

-- extent that job requires different skills (e.g. sales clerks also stock inventory and change store-front displays)

Front 65

task identity

Back 65

-- completing a whole or identifiable piece of work (e.g. employee assembles an entire computer modem)

Front 66

task significance

Back 66

impact on organization and/or society (e.g. medical devices employee impacts life and death of patients)

Front 67

autonomy

Back 67

freedom, independence, and discretion (e.g. employees (not boss) make decisions)

Front 68

job feedback

Back 68

receive performance info from the job itself (e.g. airline pilots know good landings)

Front 69

critical psychological states

Back 69

a. Experienced meaningfulness -- belief that one’s work is worthwhile or important (result of skill variety, task identity, task significance)
b. Experienced responsibility -- feel personally accountable (result of autonomy)
c. Knowledge of result -- information about work consequences (result of feedback)

Front 70

individual differences - contingencies

Back 70

a. Employees must have skills and knowledge to master job
b. May work best when reasonably satisfied at work and have sufficient growth needs

Front 71

job enrichment (definition)

Back 71

- given more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning one’s own work

Front 72

job enrichment (elements)

Back 72

1. Leads to higher job satisfaction, work motivation, lower absenteeism, lower turnover

2. Combining highly interdependent tasks into one job. Natural grouping (e.g., video journalist – combination of camera operator, sound engineer, narrator)

3. Establishing client relationships

Front 73

2. Combining highly interdependent tasks into one job.

Back 73

Natural grouping (e.g., video journalist – combination of camera operator, sound engineer, narrator)
a. Increases feelings of responsibility for an identifiable body of work
b. This sense of ownership tends to increase job quality

Front 74

3. establishing client relationships

Back 74

a. Put employees in direct contact with their clients (rather than using supervisor as go-between)
b. Employees then have more information and can make decisions affecting those clients
c. Increase task significance because employees see a connection between their work and consequences for customers

Front 75

empowerment (definition)

Back 75

a psychological concept in which people experience more self-determination, meaning, competence and impact regarding their role in the organization

Front 76

empowerment (elements)

Back 76

1. self determination
2. meaning
3. competence
4. impact

Front 77

self determination (empowerment)

Back 77

- employees are given freedom, independence, and discretion over their work activities

Front 78

meaning
(empowerment)

Back 78

empowered employees care about their work and believe that what they do is important

Front 79

competence (empowerment)

Back 79

empowered employees have feelings of self-efficacy – they are confident about their ability to perform the work well and have a capacity to grow with new challenges

Front 80

impact (empowerment)

Back 80

- empowered employees view themselves as active participants in the organization – their decisions and actions influence the company’s success

Front 81

supporting empowerment

Back 81

1. Individual factors – required competencies and ability to perform the work

2. Job design factors - autonomy, task identity, task significance, job feedback

3. Organizational factors – available information and resources, learning orientation, trust

Front 82

consequences of empowerment

Back 82

1. Improved customer service
2. Reduction in conflict between employees and their supervisors
3. Higher trust in management
4. Increased job satisfaction
5. Belief in, and acceptance of, organizational goals and values
6. Increased organizational commitment
7. Increased personal initiative